The Six Secret Teachings六韜

Scroll One — The Civil Teaching文韜

Twelve chapters, and not one word in them about how to fight. What the Civil Teaching asks is: by what right does a man who does not yet hold the realm come to hold it? The answer is given in the first chapter and never withdrawn — “the realm is not one man’s realm but the realm of all under heaven; he who shares its profit with all under heaven gains it, he who keeps that profit to himself loses it.” The eleven chapters that follow unfold that one sentence: loving the people, choosing ministers, holding one’s ground, holding the state, raising the worthy, employing the worthy, reward and punishment. Only the last chapter, The Way of War, turns to arms, and its first sentence is that the sage kings called weapons instruments of ill omen and used them only when there was no choice. A word about the book’s parentage. It is ascribed to Lü Wang, the Grand Duke, counsellor to Kings Wen and Wu of Zhou in the eleventh century BC. The Han imperial bibliography does not list a Six Secret Teachings among the military writers; the title first appears in Pei Songzhi’s commentary to the Records of the Three Kingdoms, and the Sui bibliography is the first catalogue to enter it. The Qing imperial catalogue pronounced it a forgery: the word “general” first occurs in the Zuo Commentary, and vacating the main hall of audience is a usage of the Warring States and later. But in 1972 the Han tombs at Yinqueshan in Shandong gave up bamboo slips carrying passages that match the present Civil and Martial teachings, which proves the book was already in existence in the early Western Han. The attribution is false; the book is genuinely old.

1. The Teacher of King Wen文師第一

The overture, and the only story in the book. Before a hunt the king’s scribe casts the shells and reads that what will be taken at the north bank of the Wei is neither dragon nor tiger but “a teacher sent by heaven.” The king fasts three days and finds an old man sitting on the reeds, fishing. The talk begins with fishing, passes to the thought that baiting a hook and baiting a man with a salary are the same operation, and ends in the most famous sentence in the book.

King Wen was about to hunt. The scribe Bian laid out the shells and said: “Hunt on the north bank of the Wei and the take will be great. It is neither dragon nor hornless dragon, neither tiger nor bear. The omen gives a duke — heaven is sending you a teacher. With his help Chang will prosper, and the benefit will extend to three kings.” (Chang was King Wen’s own given name.)

King Wen said: “Does the omen really go so far?”

Scribe Bian said: “My ancestor, the scribe Chou, divined for Yu and obtained Gao Yao; the omen was like this one.” (Gao Yao was the minister of justice under Shun and Yu. The Siku edition reads “divined for Shun.”)

King Wen fasted three days, mounted the hunting chariot, harnessed the hunting horses, hunted on the north bank of the Wei, and came suddenly upon the Grand Duke, who sat on the reeds, fishing. The king greeted him courteously and asked: “Do you take pleasure in fishing, sir?”

The Grand Duke said: “I have heard that the gentleman takes pleasure in attaining his purpose and the small man in attaining his business. My fishing here is very like that; it is not the fishing I enjoy.”

King Wen said: “In what way is it like that?”

The Grand Duke said: “In angling there are three points of leverage. Rank of salary is one; a man’s death is one; office is one. Angling is done in order to get something; the principle in it runs deep, and through it great matters can be seen.”

King Wen said: “I should like to hear the principle.”

The Grand Duke said: “When the source is deep the water runs; when the water runs, fish are generated in it — that is the principle. When the root is deep the tree grows tall; when the tree is tall it bears fruit — the same principle. When gentlemen are of one feeling they come together; having come together, affairs are generated — still the same. Speech and reply are the ornament of what is truly felt; to say what is truly felt to the end is the utmost of affairs. Now I have spoken what I truly feel and kept nothing back. Will you take it ill?”

King Wen said: “Only a man of humanity can bear the most direct remonstrance and not resent the plainest truth. Why should I take it ill?”

The Grand Duke said: “When the line is fine and the bait bright, small fish take it; when the line is well made and the bait fragrant, middling fish take it; when the line is heavy and the bait rich, great fish take it. The fish eats the bait and is drawn by the line; the man eats his salary and submits to his lord. So take fish with bait and the fish may be killed; take men with salary and men may be used up; take a state with a family and the state may be plucked; take the realm with a state and the whole realm may be had. Ah — what draws out long and fine must in the end disperse; what is dim and unlit will shine the further. Subtle is the virtue of the sage, whose seeing is his alone; joyful are his thoughts, by which all things return to their places and the harvest gathers of itself.”

King Wen said: “How is this planting and gathering done, that the realm should come over to one?”

The Grand Duke said: “The realm is not one man’s realm; it is the realm of all under heaven. He who shares the profit of the realm with all under heaven gains the realm; he who keeps the profit of the realm to himself loses it. Heaven has its seasons, earth its goods; to be able to hold them in common with others is humanity, and where humanity is, the realm goes over. To spare a man his death, loose him from trouble, save him from calamity, relieve his distress — that is virtue, and where virtue is, the realm goes over. To share sorrow and joy, likings and dislikings, is right, and where right is, the realm runs over. Men hate death and love life, love virtue and go where profit is; what can generate profit for them is the Way, and where the Way is, the realm goes over.” (This paragraph is the programme of the whole book.)

King Wen bowed twice and said: “It is true! How should I dare not to accept heaven’s charge!” He took him up into his chariot, brought him home, and made him his teacher.

2. Fullness and Emptiness盈虛第二

Is the order or disorder of the world the ruler’s doing or heaven’s? The Grand Duke answers in one line — “calamity and blessing lie with the ruler, not with the seasons of heaven” — and spends the rest of the chapter on evidence: how the sage Yao actually lived. It is a very concrete inventory. A good ruler is described as a way of living rather than as a virtue.

King Wen asked the Grand Duke: “The world is a press and a bustle, now full, now empty, now ordered, now in confusion. Why is it so? Is it that rulers differ in worth? Or is it the natural turning of the seasons of heaven?”

The Grand Duke said: “When the ruler is unworthy the state is in danger and the people in disorder; when the ruler is worthy and sage the state is at peace and the people are governed. Calamity and blessing lie with the ruler and not with the seasons of heaven.”

King Wen said: “May I hear of the worthy rulers of antiquity?”

The Grand Duke said: “Long ago, when the emperor Yao ruled the world, he was what the former age called a worthy ruler.”

King Wen said: “How did he govern?”

The Grand Duke said: “In Yao’s time gold, silver, pearls and jade were not used for ornament; brocade and figured silk were not worn; strange and precious things were not looked at; objects of amusement were not treasured; licentious music was not listened to. The walls and roofs of the palace were not whitewashed; ridgepole, rafters and pillars were not planed; the thatch and the overgrown courtyard were not trimmed. He wore deerskin against the cold and plain cloth to cover himself, ate coarse grain and a broth of wild greens. He would not harm the people’s ploughing and weaving season for the sake of public works, but pared down his own mind and bound his own desires, and did his business by non-action.

“Officials loyal and upright in upholding the law he raised in rank; the honest who loved men he enriched in salary. Among the people, the filial and kind he cherished, those who worked hard at farming and silk he encouraged. He distinguished the good and set a mark at their gates; kept his own mind level and his conduct straight, and used law to forbid deceit. (The Siku edition reads “distinguished good from evil,” which completes the sense better.)

“Where he felt dislike, merit was still rewarded; where he felt affection, an offence was still punished. He maintained the widowers, widows, orphans and childless of the realm, and relieved households stricken by calamity or death. What he spent on himself was very little, what he levied very light, and so the myriad people were prosperous and content and had no look of hunger or cold about them. The hundred clans looked up to their ruler as to the sun and moon and were as close to him as to father and mother.”

King Wen said: “Great indeed was that worthy and virtuous ruler.”

3. The Business of the State國務第三

What comes first in governing? Four characters: love the people, and nothing else. The answer is then broken into six pairs — benefit, complete, let live, give, gladden, please, against harm, ruin, kill, take, embitter, anger — each with a concrete content: do not rob the farmer of his season, keep punishments few, taxes light, palaces small, clerks unoppressive.

King Wen asked the Grand Duke: “I should like to hear the business of governing a state, so that the ruler may be honoured and the people at ease. How is it done?”

The Grand Duke said: “Love the people, and nothing else.”

King Wen said: “How does one love the people?”

The Grand Duke said: “Benefit them and do not harm them; bring their work to completion and do not spoil it; let them live and do not kill them; give to them and do not take from them; make them glad and do not embitter them; please them and do not anger them.”

King Wen said: “May I ask you to explain the reason of these?”

The Grand Duke said: “When the people do not lose their proper work you have benefited them; when the farmer does not lose his season you have completed their work; when punishments are few you have let them live; when taxes are light you have given to them; when palaces and terraces are modest you have made them glad; when the clerks are clean and do not harass them you have pleased them. And the reverse: to make them lose their work is to harm them; to make the farmer lose his season is to spoil it; to punish the innocent is to kill them; to tax heavily is to take from them; to build much and exhaust their strength is to embitter them; foul and harassing clerks anger them. Therefore he who governs well handles the people as a father loves his son or an elder brother his younger. Seeing them hungry and cold he grieves for them; seeing them toil he is sorry for them. Reward and punishment he feels as though laid on his own body, and taxes as though taken from his own house. This is the way of loving the people.” (The Siku edition reads “not to punish the innocent is to let them live.”)

4. The Great Rites大禮第四

What passes between ruler and minister. The formulation is odd: the one above only “overlooks,” the one below only “sinks.” Then three questions — how the ruler holds his position, how he listens, how he comes to see clearly. The answer to the third is the finest passage on a ruler’s eyes and ears in early Chinese writing.

King Wen asked the Grand Duke: “What are the rites between ruler and minister?”

The Grand Duke said: “He who is above only overlooks; he who is below only sinks. He overlooks without being remote; he sinks without concealing. He who is above is all-pervading; he who is below is settled. Pervading, he is heaven; settled, he is earth. Heaven on the one hand and earth on the other — so the great rites are accomplished.”

King Wen said: “How should the ruler hold his position?”

The Grand Duke said: “Calm, unhurried and still; the pliant measure settled first. Giving readily and not contending. His mind empty and his purposes level, meeting things with rectitude.”

King Wen said: “How should the ruler listen?”

The Grand Duke said: “Do not grant lightly; do not refuse head-on. Granting lightly, he loses his hold; refusing head-on, he shuts off the way. Like a high mountain, to be looked up at and not scaled; like a deep gulf, to be sounded and not measured. The virtue that is as spirit has its perfection in rectitude and stillness.”

King Wen said: “What makes a ruler clear-sighted?”

The Grand Duke said: “The eye prizes clarity, the ear acuteness, the mind wisdom. Look with the eyes of all under heaven and there is nothing you will not see; listen with the ears of all under heaven and there is nothing you will not hear; think with the minds of all under heaven and there is nothing you will not know. When reports come in from every quarter as spokes converge on a hub, your clarity cannot be obscured.”

5. Clear Transmission明傳第五

King Wen is on his deathbed and the heir, Fa — the future King Wu — stands at his side. One question, one answer: three things in which the Way comes to a halt, four in which it takes its rise. The closing four clauses are almost word for word the “cinnabar writing” recorded in the Da Dai Liji.

King Wen lay ill. He summoned the Grand Duke Wang, the heir Fa standing at his side, and said: “Alas, heaven is about to cast me off. The altars of Zhou are to pass to you. I wish now to be taught the words of the highest Way, that I may hand them down plainly to my descendants.”

The Grand Duke said: “What does the king wish to ask?”

King Wen said: “The Way of the former sages — where it stops and where it arises — may I hear of it?”

The Grand Duke said: “To see the good and be slack about it; to have the moment come and hesitate; to know a thing is wrong and abide in it — in these three the Way stops. To be pliant and still; to be respectful and reverent; to be strong and yet yielding; to be patient and yet firm — in these four the Way arises. So when right prevails over desire there is flourishing, and when desire prevails over right there is ruin; when reverence prevails over sloth there is good fortune, and when sloth prevails over reverence there is destruction.”

6. The Six Guards六守第六

A ruler loses his state for one reason: he was not careful whom he entrusted. Hence six guards — humanity, right, loyalty, good faith, courage, resource — and three treasures. The six are not to be praised but tested: make him rich, make him noble, entrust him, employ him, endanger him, press him with affairs. Six situations, each testing one quality.

King Wen asked the Grand Duke: “When a man who rules a state and governs a people loses it, what is the cause?”

The Grand Duke said: “He was not careful whom he took into partnership. A ruler has six guards and three treasures.”

King Wen said: “What are the six guards?”

The Grand Duke said: “First humanity, second right, third loyalty, fourth good faith, fifth courage, sixth resource. These are the six guards.”

King Wen said: “How does one carefully select for these six?”

The Grand Duke said: “Enrich him and observe whether he oversteps; ennoble him and observe whether he grows proud; entrust him and observe whether he turns; employ him and observe whether he conceals; endanger him and observe whether he fears; press him with affairs and observe whether he is at a loss. Rich and not overstepping — that is humanity. Noble and not proud — that is right. Entrusted and not turning — that is loyalty. Employed and not concealing — that is good faith. In danger and unafraid — that is courage. Pressed and not at a loss — that is resource. The ruler must not lend the three treasures to another; if he lends them he loses his authority.”

King Wen said: “May I ask what the three treasures are?”

The Grand Duke said: “Great farming, great craft, great trade — these are the three treasures. Let the farmers be concentrated in their own district and grain will suffice; the craftsmen in theirs and tools will suffice; the merchants in theirs and goods will suffice. When the three treasures each rest in their place the people are not troubled in mind. Do not disturb their districts, do not disturb their clans. No minister richer than his lord; no city greater than the capital. When the six guards stand, the ruler flourishes; when the three treasures are kept entire, the state is at peace.”

7. Holding the Ground守土第七

A volley of images: when the sun is at the zenith you must dry your grain; with the knife in your hand you must cut; with the axe raised you must strike. A trickle unstopped becomes a river; two leaves not pinched off will need an axe. All of them say one thing: what is not done at the moment cannot be undone later. In the middle stands the hinge of the chapter — never lend a man the handle of the state.

King Wen asked the Grand Duke: “How does one hold one’s ground?”

The Grand Duke said: “Do not estrange your kin; do not neglect the multitude; conciliate those about you and control the four quarters. Do not lend another the handle of the state; lend it and you have lost your power. Do not dig down the valley to heap up the hill; do not abandon the root to cultivate the branch. When the sun is at the zenith you must dry your grain; with the knife in hand you must cut; with the axe raised you must strike. Not to dry at midday is to lose the season; not to cut with the knife in hand is to lose the moment of profit; not to strike with the axe raised is to let the robber come. A trickle unstopped becomes a river; a spark not quenched — what will you do with the blaze? Two leaves not pinched off will need an axe. Therefore a ruler must work at making the state rich. Without riches he cannot practise humanity; without giving he cannot hold his kin together. Estranging his kin, he is injured; losing the multitude, he is defeated. Do not lend another a sharp instrument; lend it and you will be harmed by it and will not see out your own generation.”

King Wen said: “What is meant by humanity and right?”

The Grand Duke said: “Respect the multitude and hold your kin together. Respecting the multitude brings concord; holding the kin together brings gladness. This is the thread of humanity and right. Let no man take your authority from you. Follow what is plain in a case and go by what is constant. Those who comply, employ with virtue; those who oppose, cut off with force. Be respectful and do not waver, and the realm will submit in concord.”

8. Holding the State守國第八

From holding a patch of ground to holding a realm. The Grand Duke will not speak until the king has fasted seven days. What he then says is about the four seasons: fullness, storing, and rising again. In an ordered age the sage withdraws; in a disordered one he comes out. Politics is placed inside the calendar.

King Wen asked the Grand Duke: “How does one hold the state?”

The Grand Duke said: “Fast, and I will tell you the constant law of heaven and earth, what the four seasons bring forth, the way of the humane and the sage, and the springs of the people’s mind.” The king fasted seven days, faced north and bowed twice, and asked. (For a king to face north is to treat the Grand Duke as his teacher.)

The Grand Duke said: “Heaven brings forth the four seasons; earth brings forth the myriad things. The realm has its people, and the sage shepherds them. In spring the Way generates and all things flourish; in summer it lengthens and all things are formed; in autumn it gathers and all things are full; in winter it stores and all things are still. Full, it stores; stored, it rises again. None knows where it ends, none where it begins. The sage matches himself to it and makes of it the thread of heaven and earth. So when the realm is ordered the humane and the sage lie hidden, and when the realm is in disorder the humane and the sage come forth; such is the highest Way. The place of the sage between heaven and earth — what he holds is a great treasure indeed. Regard the people by what is constant in them and they are at peace. But the people move, and in moving become a trigger; the trigger moves, and gain and loss are contended for. Therefore set it off from the dark side and bring it together in the light; sing the first note, and the realm will sing with you. Pushed to the limit, things return of themselves to the constant, and then none presses forward to contend and none draws back to yield. Hold the state so, and you will shine as long as heaven and earth.”

9. Honouring the Worthy上賢第九

The negative list. Six villains are six ways a man in office injures the state; seven harms are seven kinds of man who must not be employed — the reckless glory-hunter, the man of name without substance, the false ascetic, the talker, the flatterer, the maker of ornamental trifles who ruins farming, the dealer in sorcery. Each comes with its disposal.

King Wen asked the Grand Duke: “He who is king over men — whom should he put above and whom below, whom take and whom put away, what forbid and what stop?”

The Grand Duke said: “Put the worthy above and the unworthy below; take the sincere and trustworthy and put away the false; forbid violence and disorder, stop extravagance. Therefore the king of men has six villains and seven harms to guard against.”

King Wen said: “I should like to hear of them.”

The Grand Duke said: “The six villains. First: ministers who build great palaces, pools and terraces, and keep players and music for their pleasure — these injure the king’s virtue. Second: people who will not farm or keep silkworms but give rein to their temper and play the knight-errant, breaking the prohibitions and disobeying the officers — these injure the king’s power to transform.

“Third: ministers who form factions, shut out the worthy and wise and block the ruler’s sight — these injure the king’s authority. Fourth: officers who make a display of lofty purpose and high principle to build themselves a following, and who deal abroad with the feudal lords without regard for their own lord — these injure the king’s prestige.

“Fifth: ministers who make light of rank and despise the offices, and are ashamed to face danger for their lord — these injure the labour of meritorious officers. Sixth: powerful clans who seize and encroach, oppressing the poor and weak — these injure the livelihood of the common people.

“The seven harms. First: a man without wit or stratagem on whom heavy rewards and high rank are spent, who is therefore bold and reckless in battle and trusts to luck abroad — let the king take care not to make him a general. Second: a man of name without substance, who says one thing coming in and another going out, covers up what is good and publishes what is bad, and is all artifice in advancing and withdrawing — let the king take care not to take counsel with him.

“Third: one who keeps his person plain and his clothes poor, talks of doing nothing in order to get a name and of wanting nothing in order to get a profit — this is a counterfeit man; let the king take care not to have him near. Fourth: one whose cap and sash are singular and whose robes are imposing, who is widely read and ready of tongue, given to empty argument and lofty discourse as a display, who lives retired and does nothing but disparage the age — this is a crooked man; let the king take care not to favour him.

“Fifth: one who slanders and flatters to get office, who is bold to the point of making light of death out of greed for salary, who takes no thought for great affairs but moves at the sight of profit, and pleases the ruler with high talk and empty argument — let the king take care not to employ him. Sixth: those who carve and inlay and make ornamental trifles to the injury of farming — the king must forbid it. Seventh: those who practise spurious arts and strange techniques, sorcery and heterodox ways, and utter words of ill omen to delude honest people — the king must put a stop to it.

“Therefore: people who do not exert themselves are not my people; officers who are not sincere are not my officers; ministers who do not remonstrate loyally are not my ministers; clerks who are not fair and clean and do not love men are not my clerks; a chief minister who cannot enrich the state and strengthen its arms, harmonise the forces of nature, keep the lord of ten thousand chariots secure, put the ministers in order, fix names against substances, make rewards and punishments clear and the myriad people content — he is not my chief minister.

“The way of a king is like the head of a dragon: it dwells high and looks far, sees deep and listens close; it shows its form and hides its feeling. High as heaven, it cannot be scaled; deep as the gulf, it cannot be sounded. Therefore when he might be angry and is not, treacherous ministers arise; when he might kill and does not, great robbers break out; when the force of arms is not exercised, the enemy state grows strong.”

King Wen said: “Well said!”

10. Raising the Worthy舉賢第十

One disease, treated exactly: raising worthy men and getting nothing by it. The diagnosis is that the ruler measures worth by common repute, and common repute is manufactured by factions, so “the man with many partisans rises, the man with few goes out.” The prescription is eight characters: hold the name against the substance, choose by talent and test by performance — the germ of the later Chinese doctrine of personnel audit.

King Wen asked the Grand Duke: “A ruler applies himself to raising worthy men and yet gets no benefit by it; the age grows more disordered, to the point of danger and ruin. Why is this?”

The Grand Duke said: “To raise worthy men and not use them is to have the name of raising the worthy without the substance of employing them.”

King Wen said: “Where does the fault lie?”

The Grand Duke said: “The fault lies in the ruler’s liking to employ those whom common opinion praises, so that he does not get the truly worthy.”

King Wen said: “How so?”

The Grand Duke said: “If the ruler takes those whom common opinion praises for worthy and those whom common opinion decries for unworthy, then the man with many partisans advances and the man with few withdraws. In that case a crowd of crooked men band together and shut out the worthy; loyal ministers die though guiltless, and treacherous ones take rank on a false reputation. So the disorder grows worse and the state does not escape danger.”

King Wen said: “How then should the worthy be raised?”

The Grand Duke said: “Let the offices of general and chief minister be divided, and let each recommend men under the title of a specified office; then hold the substance against the title, select by talent and test by ability, so that the performance matches the ability and the title matches the performance. That is the way of raising the worthy.” (This is the germ of the later Chinese doctrine of holding a man’s performance against his title.)

11. Reward and Punishment賞罰第十一

The shortest chapter in the book. Rewards must be reliable and punishments certain. Do it where eyes and ears can reach, and those beyond the reach of eyes and ears are silently changed.

King Wen asked the Grand Duke: “Rewards exist to keep men encouraged, punishments to display warning. I wish by rewarding one to encourage a hundred and by punishing one to warn a multitude. How is it done?”

The Grand Duke said: “In rewarding, what matters is that it be reliable; in punishing, that it be certain. When reward is reliable and punishment certain within the reach of eyes and ears, then those beyond the reach of eyes and ears are all silently changed. For sincerity penetrates heaven and earth and reaches the spirits — how much more men.”

12. The Way of War兵道第十二

The last chapter of the Civil Teaching, and the programme for everything military that follows; here the questioner changes from King Wen to King Wu. “In the way of arms nothing surpasses oneness.” Three exchanges follow, all about showing a false shape: disorder outside and order within, hunger displayed and plenty in fact; make for the west and strike in the east. In the base text this chapter had been moved into the Martial Teaching; it is restored here on the authority of the Song and Siku editions — see the colophon.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “What is the way of arms?” (From this chapter on, the questioner is King Wu, not King Wen.)

The Grand Duke said: “In the way of arms nothing surpasses oneness. He who is one can come and go alone. The Yellow Emperor said: ‘Oneness is a stair to the Way and is next to the spirits.’ Its application lies in the moment, its manifestation in the disposition of force, its accomplishment in the ruler. Therefore the sage kings called weapons instruments of ill omen and used them only when there was no choice. The present king of Shang knows that he survives but not that he may perish, knows his pleasure but not his coming ruin. To survive is not really to survive: it lies in considering how one may perish. To take pleasure is not really to take pleasure: it lies in considering what ruin may come. Now that you have considered the source, why should you be troubled about the stream?”

King Wu said: “Two armies meet. He cannot come over, I cannot go over; each has made his defences firm and neither dares move first. I wish to fall on him and can gain no advantage by it. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Be disordered without and ordered within; show hunger and in fact be fed; be sharp within and blunt without; now closing, now opening, now massing, now dispersing. Keep your plans dark and your springs hidden; raise your ramparts high and bury your best troops; let the men be silent as though there were none, so that the enemy cannot tell where you are guarded. Make for the west and strike in the east.”

King Wu said: “The enemy knows my situation and has penetrated my plans. What then?”

The Grand Duke said: “The art of winning with arms is to examine closely the springs of the enemy’s action and be quick to seize the advantage in them, then to strike again swiftly where he does not expect it.”

Scroll Two — The Martial Teaching武韜

Five chapters on how to arrange matters so that arms need not be used at all. The key words are opening and closing: “he who benefits the realm, the realm opens to him; he who harms the realm, the realm closes against him.” Three of the five chapter titles contain the word “opening,” and they all say the same thing: the door must be opened for you by others. The central chapter, Civil Offensive, is the strangest in the book — twelve measures, none of them military: indulge his pleasures, cultivate his favourites, bribe his attendants, isolate his loyal ministers, send him fine women and good hunting dogs. It is the ancestor of a whole later literature of statecraft by other means, and it is the part of the Six Secret Teachings that moralists have always disliked: the Qing imperial catalogue quotes Hu Yinglin to the effect that Sunzi and Wuzi would have thought such chapters beneath them. The last chapter gathers three hard problems — attacking the strong, detaching his intimates, dispersing his multitude — and answers all three with six characters: go along with him, plan closely, spend money. In the base text this scroll had six chapters; the Song and Siku editions both give five, The Way of War belonging to Scroll One. This edition follows the old texts — see the colophon.

13. Opening the Way發啟第十三

The last long conversation before King Wu. King Wen asks what is to be done about the tyranny of the king of Shang, and every part of the answer says: not yet. Heaven has sent down no calamity, so do not be the first to move; man has suffered no disaster, so do not be the first to plan. The eight characters at the centre — “a complete victory does not fight; a great army leaves no wound” — are the highest standard the book sets. At the end come the three symptoms of a state about to fall, and they read like a field report: in the fields the weeds beat the grain, among the people the crooked beat the straight, among the officers cruelty beats clarity.

King Wen was at Feng. He summoned the Grand Duke and said: “Alas! The king of Shang is cruel to the last degree; he puts the guiltless to death. You, Shang, help me to take thought for the people. How is it to be done?” (Feng was the capital to which King Wen moved, southwest of modern Xi’an. Shang was the Grand Duke’s given name.)

The Grand Duke said: “Let the king cultivate his virtue and humble himself to worthy men, be generous to the people and watch the way of heaven. While heaven has sent down no calamity, do not be the first to raise the cry; while men have suffered no disaster, do not be the first to lay plans. You must see the calamity from heaven and the disaster among men, and only then may you plan. You must see his bright side and also his dark side before you know his mind; see his outside and also his inside before you know his intent; see those he keeps at a distance and also his intimates before you know his true condition.

“Walk his road and the road can be reached; go through his gate and the gate can be entered; set up his rites and the rites can be completed; contend with his strength and the strength can be overcome. A complete victory does not fight; a great army leaves no wound; and this communicates with the spirits. Subtle indeed! Subtle indeed!” (Compare Sunzi: to subdue the enemy without fighting is the height of skill.)

“Men who share an affliction save one another; who share a feeling complete one another; who share a hatred help one another; who share a liking run together. So one may conquer without armour and weapons, attack without siege engines, defend without moat or ditch.

“Great wisdom is not wise, great planning does not plan, great courage is not brave, great profit is not profitable. He who benefits the realm, the realm opens to him; he who harms the realm, the realm closes against him. The realm is not one man’s realm but the realm of all under heaven. To take the realm is like chasing a wild beast: everyone in the realm has a mind to a share of the meat. It is like crossing in one boat: cross, and all share the gain; founder, and all share the harm. That being so, all will open to him and none will close against him.

“He who takes nothing from the people is the man who really takes the people; he who takes nothing from the state really takes the state; he who takes nothing from the realm really takes the realm. Take nothing from the people and the people profit him; take nothing from the state and the state profits him; take nothing from the realm and the realm profits him. So the Way lies in what cannot be seen, affairs in what cannot be heard, victory in what cannot be known. Subtle indeed! Subtle indeed!”

“When the bird of prey is about to strike it flies low and folds its wings; when the fierce beast is about to spring it lays back its ears and crouches; when the sage is about to move he is certain to wear a foolish look. As for the Shang: a babble of voices confounding one another, a haze and a blur, and a taste for women without end — these are the signs of a state about to fall. I have looked at their fields: the weeds beat the grain. I have looked at their people: the crooked beat the straight. I have looked at their officers: they are violent and predatory, they ruin the law and confound the penalties, and neither high nor low is aware of it. This is the hour of a state’s fall. When a great light rises all things are lit by it; when a great right rises all things profit by it; when a great army rises all things submit to it. Great is the virtue of the sage, who hears alone and sees alone — joy indeed!” (The base text writes “cruel and diseased” for “cruel and predatory”; both old editions have the latter, which is adopted.)

14. Civil Opening文啟第十四

The same word, applied to government rather than to war. It opens like the Laozi: what is there to grieve over, what to grudge? Then an order of construction — gather men into households, households into states, states into a realm: this is called the Great Thread. Let each of the myriad states be content where it is and love its own ruler: the Great Settling. Reverse it and you get the Great Loss: the ruler busies himself, punishments multiply, the people grieve and scatter. The closing image is the best in the chapter: the people of the realm are like running water — dam it and it stops, open a way and it runs, let it settle and it clears.

King Wen asked the Grand Duke: “What does the sage hold to?”

The Grand Duke said: “What is there to grieve over, what to grudge? — and all things attain themselves. What to grudge, what to grieve over? — and all things are vigorous. Government is applied and no one perceives it working its change; the seasons pass and no one perceives them shifting. The sage holds to this and all things are transformed; where should there be an end of it? It finishes and begins again. Range freely and at leisure, turn it over and search it out; having searched and found it, you must store it; having stored it, you must put it in practice; having put it in practice, do not make a show of it. Heaven and earth do not display themselves, and so endure; the sage does not display himself, and so his name is bright.”

“The sages of antiquity gathered men and made households, gathered households and made states, gathered states and made a realm; they enfeoffed worthy men as rulers of the myriad states, and called this the Great Thread. They set out their government and teaching, went along with the customs of the people, made the crooked straight, and the change showed in men’s very faces. The myriad states had no need of one another; each was content in its own place and each man loved his ruler — this is called the Great Settling. Alas! The sage works to make men still; the worthy man works to make them straight; the fool cannot make them straight, and so contends with them. When those above are busy, punishments multiply; when punishments multiply, the people grieve; when the people grieve, they drift away. High and low are unsettled in their living, and generation after generation gets no rest — this is called the Great Loss. The people of the realm are like running water: dam it and it stops, open a way and it runs, let it settle and it clears. Ah, how marvellous! The sage sees the beginning and therefore knows the end.”

King Wen said: “How is it made still?”

The Grand Duke said: “Heaven has its constant form, the people their constant livelihood. Hold that livelihood in common with the realm and the realm is still. The highest way is to go along with them, the next to transform them. When the people are transformed they follow the government; and so heaven does nothing and affairs are accomplished, the people are given nothing and grow rich of themselves. This is the virtue of the sage.”

King Wen said: “Your words agree with what is in my heart. Morning and night I shall keep them in mind and not forget them, and make them my constant rule.”

15. The Civil Offensive文伐第十五

The chapter that has always drawn stares. A “civil offensive” is an attack conducted without weapons, and twelve measures are set out in order, from going along with his pleasures and cultivating his favourites to isolating his loyal ministers, buying his men of ability, and at last sending him disordered ministers, seductive music, fine women and good dogs and horses. Only when all twelve are in place does it say “then the military business may be completed.” The order matters: these are preparations for war, not a substitute for it. There is not a word of self-justification anywhere in the chapter — which is one of the reasons readers have doubted that the book is by a single hand.

King Wen asked the Grand Duke: “What is the method of the civil offensive?”

The Grand Duke said: “The civil offensive has twelve measures. First: go along with what he likes, in order to fall in with his wishes. He will grow proud and will certainly do something improper. If you can turn that to account you will certainly be able to be rid of him. (In the base text each of the twelve items opened with a quotation mark that was never closed; the twelve strays are removed here — see the colophon.)

“Second: draw close to those he loves, so as to divide his authority. When one man has two minds his strength must decline; when the court has no loyal minister the altars are in danger. Third: bribe his attendants in secret and get to know his affairs very deeply. When a man’s body is within and his heart without, the state will breed harm.

“Fourth: assist his dissipations and enlarge his ambitions; send him pearls and jade in quantity and amuse him with beautiful women. Speak humbly, defer to him, comply with his orders and fall in with him; he will cease to contend with you, and your design is settled.

“Fifth: make much of his loyal ministers while sending them only meagre presents; detain his envoys and pay no attention to their business. Contrive quickly to have another envoy appointed, entrust him with honest business, treat him as an intimate and trust him, and his lord will be reconciled with you again. If you can make much of the loyal minister in this way, his state may be plotted against. (The device is to honour an enemy’s loyal minister so conspicuously that his own lord suspects him.)

“Sixth: buy men within and estrange those without. When men of ability serve another abroad while the enemy state eats into him at home, few states so placed fail to fall. Seventh: to bind his mind fast you must bribe him richly. Buy over those about him whom he loves and trusts, show them the profit secretly, and make them take their own business lightly, so that his stores stand empty.

“Eighth: bribe him with heavy treasure and take counsel with him in consequence. Let the counsel profit him, and profiting him he will trust you: this is called doubled intimacy. Let the doubled intimacy accumulate and he must come to serve your turn. A man who holds a state and yet faces outward — his land will surely fail.

“Ninth: exalt him with titles and give his person no trouble; show him the great trend of things and he will trust your compliance; bring him to the highest honours, get up a glory for him first, and then dress him up a little as a sage — and his state will sink into sloth.

“Tenth: put yourself below him so as to be certainly trusted, and so get at his true state. Fall in with his intentions and manage his affairs as though you were his own brother. Having got him, gather him in quietly. When the hour comes it will be as though heaven itself destroyed him.

“Eleventh: block him up by means of the Way. There is no minister who does not value rank and wealth and hate danger and blame. Promise him great honours in secret and send him rich presents quietly, and so take over his best men. Let your own stores be very full while you make a show of want outside. Send in men of wit secretly to plan for him; send in brave men to raise his spirit. Let his wealth and rank be more than enough and still increasing; and when the faction is complete, that is what is called blocking him up. A man who holds a state and is blocked up — how shall he keep his state?

“Twelfth: nourish his disorderly ministers to confuse him; send in fine women and lewd music to lead him astray; send him good dogs and horses to wear him out; give him from time to time some great advantage to draw him on; and look upward to heaven and plot against him with the whole realm. When the twelve measures are complete, the military business may then be completed. This is what is meant by examining heaven above and earth below: when the signs have appeared, strike.” (Note the order: the civil offensive precedes war and does not replace it.)

16. Compliant Opening順啟第十六

A single exchange, and one of the weightiest passages in the book. Five things must “cover the realm” — greatness, good faith, humanity, kindness, power — and to them is added acting without hesitation: six in all, and “then one may govern the realm.” Then eight parallel clauses in which the realm is the subject: benefit it and it opens, harm it and it closes; give it life and it thanks you, kill it and it counts you a robber. The last line goes a step beyond the famous sentence of chapter one: the realm is not one man’s realm — only a man who has the Way may occupy it.

King Wen asked the Grand Duke: “What qualifies a man to govern the realm?”

The Grand Duke said: “Greatness that covers the realm, and then he can contain the realm. Good faith that covers the realm, and then he can bind the realm. Humanity that covers the realm, and then he can cherish the realm. Kindness that covers the realm, and then he can keep the realm. Power that covers the realm, and then he will not lose the realm. To act without hesitating, so that the revolution of heaven cannot shift him and the turn of affairs cannot move him. When these six are complete, a man may govern the realm. Therefore: he who benefits the realm, the realm opens to him; he who harms the realm, the realm closes against him. He who gives the realm life, the realm thanks; he who kills the realm, the realm counts a robber. He who lets the realm through, the realm lets through; he who brings the realm to a dead end, the realm holds his enemy. He who makes the realm safe, the realm leans on him; he who endangers the realm, the realm counts a disaster. The realm is not one man’s realm: only he who has the Way may occupy it.”

17. Three Doubts三疑第十七

King Wu has three misgivings: that he cannot break a strong enemy, cannot detach his intimates, cannot disperse his multitude. The Grand Duke turns each of them inside out. To attack the strong, first feed his strength until it breaks of itself — what is too strong snaps, what is too taut splits. Attack the strong by means of his own strength, detach his intimates by means of his own intimates, disperse his multitude by means of his own multitude. It is the same turn as Laozi 36. The close is on the other side of the ledger: be generous to the people, and mind leads to wit, wit to wealth, wealth to numbers, numbers to worthy men.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “I wish to establish merit, and I have three doubts. I fear my strength will not break the strong, nor detach his intimates, nor disperse his multitude. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Go along with him, plan closely, spend money. To attack the strong you must feed him and make him stronger, add to him and make him more extended. What is too strong must snap; what is too taut must split. Attack the strong by his own strength; detach his intimates by his own intimates; disperse his multitude by his own multitude.” (The same turn as Laozi 36: to weaken a thing, first strengthen it.)

“In all planning, close secrecy is the treasure. Set matters before him, let him turn a profit over in his mind, and a contentious spirit is bound to arise. If you wish to detach his intimates, work through the man he loves: make a friend of his favourite, give him what he wants, show him where the profit lies, and so estrange him from his lord without letting him have his way. Once he is greedy for the profit and delighted with it, whatever doubt is left will cease.

“In all attacking, first block his sight, and then attack his strength, destroy his greatness, and rid the people of what afflicts them. Soak him in women, bait him with profit, feed him with delicacies, amuse him with music.

“Having detached his intimates, you must keep him away from the people and not let them know what you are planning. Support him and draw him in, letting none perceive your intention; then it can be brought off. In bestowing kindness on the people do not grudge money: treat them as one treats oxen and horses, feeding them again and again, and they will come over and become attached to you. Mind opens wit; wit opens wealth; wealth opens numbers; numbers open worthy men. And when worthy men are opened to you, you may be king of the realm.” (“Treat them as oxen and horses, feeding them again and again” is the bluntest sentence in the book about the people, and stands in flat contradiction to The Business of the State, where the ruler handles the people as a father loves his son — another sign that the book is not of one hand. The four characters “as oxen and horses” are missing from the base text and are restored here from both old editions; see the colophon.)

Scroll Three — The Dragon Teaching龍韜

Thirteen chapters, the backbone of the book and the part in which it is most original: it is not about how to fight but about the office of the general — how he is staffed (The King’s Wings), how he is judged and how he judges (On Generals, Choosing Generals), how he is invested (Appointing the General), how he establishes authority (The General’s Authority), how he holds his men (Encouraging the Army), how he communicates in secret (The Secret Tallies, The Secret Letter), and how he reads a situation. Three passages have a place in military history. The King’s Wings sets out a headquarters establishment of seventy-two men in eighteen specialisms — the earliest roster of a general staff that survives anywhere. The eight proofs of Choosing Generals — question, press, sound out on a secret, ask openly, put him in charge of money, try him with women, tell him of danger, make him drunk — are the earliest systematic method of judging men in Chinese. And Appointing the General, with its ceremony of the axe and its rule that “in the army orders come from the general and not from the ruler,” is the fullest source of the maxim that a general in the field need not obey his sovereign. The Qing imperial catalogue singled out The Secret Tallies as proof of forgery, on the ground that the author misunderstood the word “tally”; the objection is interesting in itself, since it concedes that what the chapter describes is a workable length-code.

18. The King’s Wings王翼第十八

An establishment table. King Wu asks what staff a commander ought to have, and the Grand Duke lists seventy-two men in eighteen specialisms, each with its duties: one confidant for overall counsel and emergencies, five strategists, three astronomers, three topographers, nine masters of tactics, four for supply, four for assault, three for drums and flags and false signals, four for engineering, three for protocol, three for stratagems, seven for intelligence, five for morale, four for propaganda, eight roving agents, two practitioners of the occult, two physicians, two accountants.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “When a king leads an army he must have limbs and wings about him, so as to make up his awe and his mystery. How is it done?”

The Grand Duke said: “Whenever an army is raised and led, the whole depends on the general. That depends on his being open on every side and not holding to one method. Give office according to capacity, take from each man what he is best at, change with the occasion, and make this your thread. So a general should have seventy-two limbs and wings, to answer the way of heaven. Have the full number according to the rule, and understand clearly the principle of command; with special capacities and distinct skills all business is provided for.” (Seventy-two is a number of numerological weight; the specialisms below add up to it exactly.)

King Wu said: “May I ask for the list?”

The Grand Duke said: “Confidant, one man: he assists in counsel and meets emergencies, weighs the will of heaven and dissolves disturbances, holds all planning together, and keeps the people’s lives whole. Strategists, five men: they plan for safety and danger, consider what has not yet sprouted, assess conduct and ability, make rewards and punishments clear, confer office, decide doubtful cases, and settle what may and may not be done.

“Astronomers, three men: they take charge of the stars and the calendar, watch the winds and the air, calculate times and days, examine omens, collate prodigies, and know the moment at which heaven’s favour comes or goes. Topographers, three men: they take charge of the lie of the ground for the army’s marching and halting, its advantages and disadvantages, distance and nearness, ease and difficulty, where the water fails and where the hills obstruct, so that the advantage of ground is not lost.

“Masters of tactics, nine men: they take charge of discussing what is alike and unlike, of the success and failure of operations, of selecting and drilling with weapons, and of reporting breaches of the rules. Officers of supply, four men: they take charge of reckoning food and drink, of stores, of keeping the supply route open, of bringing in the grain, so that the army does not go short.

“Officers of assault, four men: they take charge of selecting men of strength, of assessing weapons and armour, and of moving like wind and lightning so that none knows whence they came. Officers of concealed drums and flags, three men: they take charge of hidden drums and flags, of making eyes and ears distinct, of counterfeiting tallies, of issuing false orders, of coming and going in the dark as though by magic.

“Officers of engineering, four men: they take charge of heavy and difficult work, of digging trenches and building ramparts for defence. Officers of all-round ability, three men: they take charge of making good what is left undone, of receiving envoys and guests, of discussion and talk, of dissolving trouble and untying knots. Officers of stratagem, three men: they take charge of the strange and the deceptive, of contriving what is out of the ordinary and beyond men’s recognising, and of endless variation. Officers of eyes and ears, seven men: they take charge of going and coming, of listening to what is said and watching what changes, of surveying the affairs of the four quarters and the state of the army. Officers of tooth and claw, five men: they take charge of raising the martial spirit, of urging the army on, of making it face danger and attack picked troops without misgiving. Officers of wings, four men: they take charge of spreading the army’s reputation, shaking distant regions, unsettling the four borders, and weakening the enemy’s will.

“Roving agents, eight men: they take charge of watching for treachery and awaiting changes, of opening and closing men’s feelings, of observing the enemy’s intentions, and of acting as spies. Practitioners of arts, two men: they take charge of deception, of invoking spirits, and of confusing the minds of the multitude. Physicians, two men: they take charge of the hundred drugs, of treating wounds from steel, of curing all diseases. Accountants, two men: they take charge of the reckoning of camps and ramparts, of provisions, and of the receipt and issue of goods.” (The base text writes a corrupt character for “picked troops” above; the Song edition has the right one.)

19. On Generals論將第十九

How to judge a commander. Five positive qualities — courage, wisdom, humanity, good faith, loyalty — then ten faults, each with the way to exploit it: the man brave and careless of death can be goaded, the hasty man worn down, the greedy man bribed, the humane man who cannot be hard worn out with work. It is the coldest passage in the book. The close is flat: “armies do not both win, nor do both lose.”

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “What is the way of judging a general?”

The Grand Duke said: “A general has five materials and ten faults.”

King Wu said: “May I ask for the list?”

The Grand Duke said: “The five materials are courage, wisdom, humanity, good faith and loyalty. Being brave, he cannot be affronted; being wise, he cannot be thrown into confusion; being humane, he loves his men; keeping faith, he does not deceive; being loyal, he is not of two minds.”

“The ten faults: to be brave and careless of death; to be hasty and quick in mind; to be greedy and fond of gain; to be humane and unable to be hard; to be wise and timid; to be trustworthy and too ready to trust others; to be scrupulous and without tenderness for men; to be wise and slow in mind; to be resolute and self-willed; to be weak and fond of leaving things to others.

“He who is brave and careless of death can be goaded. He who is hasty and quick can be worn out with delay. He who is greedy and fond of gain can be bribed. He who is humane and cannot be hard can be worn down with labour. He who is wise and timid can be pressed hard. He who is trustworthy and too ready to trust can be deceived. He who is scrupulous and without tenderness for men can be insulted. He who is wise and slow can be surprised. He who is resolute and self-willed can be flattered. He who is weak and leaves things to others can be cheated. (Each of the ten is one of the five materials carried a step too far, and so become an opening.)

“Therefore arms are the great business of the state, the way of survival and ruin, and the life of it lies in the general. The general is the state’s support and what the former kings held most important. So in appointing a general there must be the closest scrutiny. Hence the saying: armies do not both win, nor do both lose. Once the army has crossed the border, within ten days, if no state has fallen, an army has certainly been broken and a general killed.”

King Wu said: “Well said!”

20. Choosing Generals選將第二十

How to see through a man. First fifteen kinds in whom the outside does not answer to the inside: severe and useless, mild and a thief, respectful in manner and contemptuous at heart. The last kind matters most — the man of no presence and poor appearance who goes out and leaves nothing unreached and nothing unaccomplished: “what the world despises the sage prizes.” Then the method: the eight proofs.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “When a king raises an army and wants to pick out and drill men of quality and to know the worth of each, how is it done?”

The Grand Duke said: “There are fifteen kinds in whom a man’s outward appearance does not answer to what is within. There is the severe man who is good for nothing; the mild and gentle man who is a thief; the man respectful in manner and contemptuous at heart; the man scrupulous and careful in appearance with no sincerity within; the shrewd man with no real feeling; the man of great depth with no honesty; the man fond of planning who cannot decide; the man who seems bold and can do nothing; the plain honest man who cannot be trusted; the man all vagueness and hesitation who is in fact faithful and solid; the man perverse and extreme who gets results; the man bold outside and timid within; the man of solemn bearing who in fact slights people; the man of harsh manner who is in fact quiet and sincere; and the man of no presence and poor appearance who is sent out and leaves nothing unreached and nothing unaccomplished. What the world despises the sage prizes; ordinary men do not understand it, and without great clarity one cannot see where the line falls. These are the kinds in whom the outside does not answer to the inside.”

King Wu said: “How is one to know them?”

The Grand Duke said: “There are eight proofs. First, question him and observe how he speaks. Second, press him with argument to the end and observe how he shifts. Third, sound him out on a secret and observe whether he is honest. Fourth, ask him plainly and openly and observe his character. Fifth, put him in charge of money and observe whether he is clean. Sixth, try him with women and observe whether he is upright. Seventh, tell him of a danger and observe whether he is brave. Eighth, make him drunk and observe his manner. When the eight proofs have been applied, the worthy and the unworthy stand apart.” (These are the “eight proofs” often cited later; compare the “nine tests” of Zhuangzi and the “eight observations and six tests” of the Lüshi chunqiu.)

21. Appointing the General立將第二十一

The ceremony of investiture, the most vivid chapter in the book. The ruler leaves his hall of audience, fasts, goes to the ancestral temple and burns the tortoise for a lucky day. He stands facing west, the general facing north. The ruler takes up the great axe by the head and hands the general the handle: “from here up to heaven, the general commands.” Then he takes the axe by the handle and hands the general the blade: “from here down to the depths, the general commands.” The general answers that a state cannot be governed from outside nor an army directed from the court, and demands a word of consent before he will accept. The passage that follows — “no heaven above, no earth below, no enemy in front, no ruler behind” — is the most complete delegation of authority in the Chinese military tradition.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “What is the way of appointing a general?”

The Grand Duke said: “Whenever the state is in trouble, the ruler leaves his hall of audience, summons the general and charges him: ‘The safety of the altars rests wholly with you, general. A certain state will not submit; I ask you to lead the army against it.’ When the general has received the charge, the Grand Astrologer is ordered to divine; after three days of fasting they go to the ancestral temple, burn the sacred tortoise, determine a lucky day, and the axe of office is handed over. (Leaving the hall of audience marks an extraordinary occasion — the Qing catalogue used this very usage as evidence that the book is later than the Zhou.)

“The ruler enters the temple gate and stands facing west; the general enters and stands facing north. The ruler takes up the great axe himself, holds it by the head and gives the general the handle, saying: ‘From here upward to heaven, the general commands.’ He then takes the axe by the handle and gives the general the blade, saying: ‘From here downward to the depths, the general commands. Seeing the enemy weak, advance; seeing him strong, halt.

“‘Do not, because the army is numerous, make light of the enemy. Do not, because your charge is weighty, resolve on death. Do not, because you are honoured, despise others. Do not, because the opinion is yours alone, go against the many. Do not take eloquence for certainty. Do not sit before the men sit; do not eat before the men eat; share cold and heat with them. Do this, and the men will spend their last strength for you.’ The general, having received the charge, bows and answers: ‘I have heard that a state cannot be governed from outside, nor an army directed from the court; that a man of two minds cannot serve his lord, and a man of divided purpose cannot face an enemy. I have received the charge and hold alone the authority of the axe; I do not presume to come back alive. I ask that my lord also grant me one word of command. If my lord will not grant it, I dare not take the command.’ The ruler grants it, and the general takes his leave and departs.” (This is the fullest source of the maxim that a general in the field need not obey his sovereign.)

“In matters of the army no word from the ruler is heard; all comes from the general. Facing the enemy and deciding the battle, he is not of two minds. So there is no heaven above him, no earth below him, no enemy before him, no ruler behind him.”

“Therefore the wise plan for him and the brave fight for him; their spirit rises to the clouds and they are as quick as galloping horses; the blades never cross and the enemy submits. Victory is won abroad and merit established at home; officers are promoted and men rewarded; the people rejoice, and no calamity comes upon the general. And so wind and rain fall in season, the five grains ripen, and the altars are at peace.”

King Wu said: “Well said!”

22. The General’s Authority將威第二十二

A single exchange containing one very sharp rule: authority is made by executing the great, and clarity by rewarding the small. Execute one man and the whole army trembles — execute him. Reward one man and ten thousand are pleased — reward him. Let the executions reach the highest in office and the rewards reach the boy who tends the cattle.

King Wu asked: “By what does a general make his authority? By what his clarity? By what does he make what he forbids stop and what he orders be done?”

The Grand Duke said: “A general makes his authority by executing the great, his clarity by rewarding the small, and his orders obeyed by punishing with exactness. So execute one man and the whole army trembles: execute him. Reward one man and ten thousand are pleased: reward him. In executing, what matters is that it reach the great; in rewarding, that it reach the small. When the execution reaches the highest ministers in office, punishment has gone to the top; when the reward reaches the cowherd, the groom and the stableman, reward has gone to the bottom. Punishment to the top and reward to the bottom — that is how a general’s authority is exercised.”

23. Encouraging the Army勵軍第二十三

How a general holds his men: by putting himself under the same conditions as they are. Three kinds — the general of ceremony (no furs in winter, no fan in summer, no canopy in rain), the general of labour (first down from the chariot at a difficult pass), the general who checks his appetites (his quarters after the army’s, his meal after theirs, no fire when the army has none). The reason given is exact: without going through it himself he cannot know his men’s cold and heat, toil and hunger. So “it is not that the men love death and take pleasure in wounds.”

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “I want the whole army to vie for first place on the wall in a siege and first into the charge in the field, to be angry when they hear the gong and glad when they hear the drum. How is it done?” (The gong sounds the recall, the drum the advance; to be angry at the gong is to resent being called off.)

The Grand Duke said: “A general has three things that bring victory.”

King Wu said: “May I ask for the list?”

The Grand Duke said: “The general who wears no furs in winter, carries no fan in summer, and puts up no canopy in the rain is called the general of ceremony. If a general does not observe this ceremony in his own person he has no way of knowing the cold and heat of his men. Going out through defiles, crossing mud, the general must be first down from his chariot and on foot: this is called the general of labour. If a general does not labour in his own person he has no way of knowing the toil of his men. Only when the whole army is quartered does the general go to his lodging; only when all the cooking is done does he go to his food; when the army lights no fire, neither does he: this is called the general who checks his appetites. If a general does not check them in his own person he has no way of knowing the hunger and fullness of his men. When the general shares cold and heat, toil and hunger with his men, then at the sound of the drum the whole army is glad and at the sound of the gong it is angry. Though the wall be high and the moat deep and arrows and stones fall thick, the men vie to be first up; at the first crossing of blades they vie to be first in. It is not that they love death and take pleasure in wounds: it is that their general knows exactly their cold and heat and hunger and fullness, and sees plainly what they endure.”

24. The Secret Tallies陰符第二十四

A code keyed to length. The ruler and the general agree on eight tallies: one foot for a great victory, nine inches for breaking an army and taking its general, eight for the surrender of a city, seven for driving the enemy off, six for standing to arms, five for asking reinforcements and supply, four for defeat and the loss of the general, three for the loss of men. Nothing is written on them, so a captured tally says nothing; the drawback is that only these eight things can be said, which is why the next chapter follows.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords, the army may suddenly meet with an emergency, favourable or unfavourable. I wish to communicate from near to far, to answer from the centre to the outside and so supply the army’s needs. How is it done?”

The Grand Duke said: “Between the ruler and the general there are secret tallies, eight in all. There is the tally of great victory over the enemy, one foot long; of breaking his army and taking his general, nine inches; of the surrender of a city and the gaining of a town, eight inches; of driving the enemy off and reporting from a distance, seven inches; of warning the troops to stand fast, six inches; of asking for supplies and reinforcements, five inches; of a defeat and the loss of a general, four inches; of a reverse and the loss of men, three inches. Any bearer of a tally who is late, and any case in which the business of a tally is divulged — the teller and the hearer are both put to death. These eight tallies are the secret understanding of ruler and general, the means by which they communicate in the dark without letting out how centre and field know one another. Though the enemy have the wisdom of a sage, he can make nothing of them.” (Nothing is written on the tallies; only the length signifies. The Qing catalogue objected that the author had mistaken the meaning of the word “tally,” but as a system it is complete and workable.)

King Wu said: “Well said!”

25. The Secret Letter陰書第二十五

What the tallies cannot carry. A letter is composed as one and divided into three; three men each carry a part by different routes, and only the three parts together can be read — no one of the three knows anything. This is the earliest split-message scheme in Chinese literature, and the principle is that of modern secret sharing.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords, the ruler and the general wish to bring their forces together, to make endless variations and to aim at unforeseeable advantage. The matters are many and complicated, and the tallies cannot make them plain; we are far apart and cannot speak. How is it done?”

The Grand Duke said: “For secret affairs and great deliberations, use a letter and not a tally. The ruler sends the general a letter and the general asks the ruler by letter. The letter is in every case composed as one and divided again, sent out in three and understood as one. Divided again means the letter is divided into three parts. Sent out in three and understood as one means that three men are employed, each carrying one part; the parts are read against one another and no one of them knows what is in it. This is called the secret letter. Though the enemy have the wisdom of a sage, he can make nothing of it.” (The earliest split-message scheme in Chinese literature: any one share taken by the enemy is meaningless — the principle of modern secret sharing.)

King Wu said: “Well said!”

26. The Disposition of the Army軍勢第二十六

The most abstract chapter, and the most quoted. Its centre is formlessness: “he who is good at fighting does not wait to array his army; he who is good at removing trouble deals with it before it is born; he who is good at conquering conquers where there is no form; the highest warfare has no one to fight with.” Then four descending judgments — the man who contends for victory at the point of the sword is no good general; the man who prepares after the loss is no sage. Then the passage on decision, of which two phrases became proverbs: quicker than covering the ears against thunder, than shutting the eyes against lightning.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “What is the way of attacking?”

The Grand Duke said: “The disposition of force follows the enemy’s movement; change is born between the two arrays; the orthodox and the unorthodox issue from a source without end. So the ultimate business is not talked of and the use of arms is not spoken. When a matter is at its height, what is said of it is not worth listening to; when arms are to be used, their shape is not to be shown. Gone in a flash, back in a flash: able to act alone and not to be controlled — that is an army. An army heard of is discussed; an army seen is schemed against; an army known is in difficulty; an army made out is in danger.

“Therefore he who is good at fighting does not wait to array his army; he who is good at removing trouble deals with it before it is born; he who is good at conquering conquers where there is no form; the highest warfare has no one to fight with. So he who contends for victory at the point of the sword is no good general; he who makes his dispositions after the loss is no sage of the first rank; he whose wisdom is that of the crowd is no teacher of the state; he whose skill is that of the crowd is no master craftsman of the state. No business is greater than certain victory, no use greater than dark silence, no movement more marvellous than the unexpected, no plan better than the unrecognised. He who wins beforehand is one who first appears weak to the enemy and fights afterwards; so he does half the work and gets twice the effect.”

“The sage takes his evidence from the movement of heaven and earth — who knows its thread? He follows the way of the dark and the bright and goes with its seasons; he matches the waxing and waning of heaven and earth and makes of it his constant rule. Things live and die according to the shape of heaven and earth.

“Hence the saying: to fight before the form is seen is to be defeated however many one has. He who is good at fighting stands unshaken; seeing that he can win, he rises; seeing that he cannot, he stops. Hence the saying: be without fear and without hesitation. Of the harms in using arms, hesitation is the greatest; of the calamities of an army, none is worse than doubt.

“The good commander does not let an advantage slip nor hesitate when the moment comes. Lose the advantage and miss the moment, and the harm comes back on you. So the wise man takes hold and does not let go, and the skilful man decides once and does not waver. Hence it is quicker than the thunderclap that leaves no time to cover the ears, than the lightning that leaves no time to shut the eyes. Fall on as though startled, use them as though mad; what stands in the way is broken, what comes near perishes — who can withstand it? As for the general: there is that which he does not say and yet keeps — this is spirit; that which he does not look at and yet sees — this is clarity. So he who knows the way of spirit and clarity has no enemy standing across his path in the field and no state facing him that can hold.”

King Wu said: “Well said!”

27. The Unorthodox奇兵第二十七

A table of unorthodox uses. Twenty-six entries, all in the same form — deep grass is for escaping, ravines are for stopping chariots, defiles and forests are for fighting many with few, dark marshes are for hiding one’s shape, splitting into four and five is for breaking a circle or a square. It ends on the general with seven clauses of the form “if the general is not …, the army will …,” and closes: the general holds the lives of his men.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Of the methods of using arms, what is the main point?”

The Grand Duke said: “Those who were good at fighting in antiquity could not fight in the sky nor under the ground; their success and failure came wholly from the mysterious disposition of force. Having it, they flourished; losing it, they perished.

“Between the two arrays, to send out armoured men, array the troops and let the ranks break loose is the way to make change. Deep and tangled grass is for slipping away. Ravines and defiles are for stopping chariots and holding off horse. Narrow passes and forests are for fighting many with few. Low marshes and dark places are for hiding one’s shape. Clear open ground with no cover is for fighting it out by sheer strength. To be as swift as a flying arrow and strike like the release of a crossbow is the way to break a fine disposition. Cunning ambushes and false displays at a distance are the way to break an army and take its general. Splitting into four and five is the way to attack a circle and break a square.

“Taking him while he is startled is the way for one to strike ten; taking him weary as he camps at evening is the way for ten to strike a hundred. Ingenious contrivances are for getting over deep water and crossing rivers. Strong crossbows and long weapons are for fighting across water. Distant posts and far-flung scouts, and sudden feigned flight, are the way to bring cities to surrender. Drums and shouting on the march are the way to carry out an unorthodox plan. High wind and heavy rain are the way to strike the front and seize the rear. Passing men off as the enemy’s envoys is the way to cut his supply route.

“False orders and the enemy’s own uniform are the way to guard against desertion. Always fighting in a just cause is the way to hearten the men and beat the enemy. High rank and heavy reward are the way to make men spend themselves. Severe law and heavy punishment are the way to drive on the slack. Now pleased and now angry, now giving and now taking, now civil and now martial, now slow and now quick — this is the way to harmonise the army and make subordinates of one mind. Holding high open ground is the way to keep watch. Holding a defile is the way to be secure. Thick woods are the way to come and go unseen. Deep ditches, high ramparts and much grain are the way to hold out. Hence the saying: with a man who does not know the policy of attack one cannot talk of the enemy; with a man who cannot divide and shift one cannot talk of the unorthodox; with a man who does not understand order and disorder one cannot talk of change.

“And the saying: if the general is not humane the army is not attached to him; if the general is not brave the army is not keen; if the general is not wise the army is full of doubt; if the general is not clear-sighted the army is overthrown; if the general is not subtle the army loses its opportunities; if the general is not always on guard the army loses its preparedness; if the general is not strong the army fails in its duty. So the general holds the lives of men; with him the army is ordered and with him it falls into disorder. Get a worthy general and the army is strong and the state flourishes; fail to get one and the army is weak and the state perishes.”

King Wu said: “Well said!”

28. The Five Notes五音第二十八

The strangest chapter in the book: judging the enemy by sound. On a clear windless night, light horsemen ride to within nine hundred paces of the enemy camp, hold the twelve pitch-pipes to their ears and raise a shout; whichever pipe the returning sound answers gives the reading. The second half of the chapter then gives a far more practical version of the same scheme: drums heard means one note, firelight another, the clash of metal a third, men shouting a fourth, silence the fifth. The two halves standing side by side show very clearly how a piece of divination gets quietly annexed by practical reason.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Can the sound of the pitch-pipes tell the waxing and waning of an army and decide victory and defeat?”

The Grand Duke said: “A deep question, my king. There are twelve pitch-pipes, of which the essential are the five notes: gong, shang, jue, zhi, yu. These are the correct notes, unchanged through ten thousand ages. They are the spirits of the five phases and the constancy of the Way, and by them the enemy may be known: metal, wood, water, fire and earth, each attacked by that which overcomes it.

“In the age of the Three Sovereigns of old, emptiness and stillness were used to control the hard and strong. There was no writing, and everything went by the five phases. The way of the five phases is the nature of heaven and earth, and the divisions of the sixty-day cycle are its subtle spirit. The method is this: when heaven is clear and there is neither cloud nor wind nor rain, at midnight send light horsemen to the enemy’s ramparts; halting nine hundred paces off, let each hold a pitch-pipe to his ear and give a great shout to startle them. A sound will answer in the pipe, and it comes back very faint. If jue answers the pipe, respond with the White Tiger; if zhi, with the Dark Warrior; if shang, with the Vermilion Bird; if yu, with the Hooked Array; if none of the five pipes answers, the note is gong, and one responds with the Green Dragon. These are the signs of the five phases, the tokens that assist victory, the springs of success and failure.” (The five names are the spirits of the five directions, standing here for the five phase-correlated methods of operation. This half of the chapter belongs to Han military divination.)

King Wu said: “Well said!”

The Grand Duke said: “These subtle sounds all have outward signs as well.”

King Wu said: “How are they known?”

The Grand Duke said: “When the enemy is startled into movement, listen. If you hear the sound of drumsticks on drums, it is jue. If you see firelight, it is zhi. If you hear metal and iron, spears and halberds, it is shang. If you hear men shouting, it is yu. If there is silence and nothing is heard, it is gong. These five are the tokens of sound and appearance.” (This second half renders the divination of the first into items an officer can actually carry out — a clear instance of a mantic art being annexed by practical reason.)

29. Signs in the Army兵徵第二十九

Reading morale, and reading vapours. The first half is sober and usable: an army pleased with itself, afraid of the law, respectful of orders, its men urging one another on to beat the enemy — that is the sign of strength; an army often alarmed, its ranks uneven, its men telling one another how strong the enemy is, rumour unstopped — the sign of weakness. It goes on to the sound of the bells and drums: clear and rising is good, low and muddy is bad. The second half is the art of reading the vapour over a besieged city, a practice of Han military diviners. The last rule is the most practical in the chapter: if ten days pass without thunder or rain, raise the siege at once — that city has powerful help.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “I wish to know the enemy’s strength or weakness before fighting, and to foresee the signs of victory and defeat. How is it done?”

The Grand Duke said: “The signs of victory and defeat appear first in the spirit, and a clear-sighted general perceives them; but the defeat itself lies with men. Watch closely the enemy’s coming and going, advance and retreat; observe his movement and stillness, the omens good or ill in his talk, and what the men report.

“When the whole army is in good heart, the men fear the law and respect the general’s orders, and they urge one another on to beat the enemy, spur one another with courage, praise one another for martial bearing — these are signs of strength. When the army is often alarmed, the ranks uneven, the men frightening one another with the enemy’s strength and telling one another how badly things go, ear at ear, rumour unstopped, a babble of voices confounding one another, no fear of the law and no respect for the general — these are signs of weakness.

“When the army is in good order, its array already firm, its ditches deep and ramparts high, when it has besides the advantage of a high wind and heavy rain, when nothing untoward occurs, the banners point forward, the bells sound clear and rising, the drums roll round and full — these are the signs of the help of the spirits and of a great victory. When the ranks are not firm, the banners tangled and crossing, the wind and rain against them, the men afraid, their breath failing and not carrying, the war-horses bolting in fright, the chariots breaking their axles, the bells sounding low and muddy, the drums sounding sodden as though soaked — these are the signs of a great defeat.

“In besieging a city: if the vapour over it is the colour of dead ashes, the city may be taken by storm. If the vapour goes out to the north, the city can be reduced; to the west, the city will certainly surrender; to the south, the city cannot be taken; to the east, the city must not be attacked. If the vapour goes out and comes back in, the commander of the city will flee. If it goes out and settles over our army, the army will fall sick. If it goes out and does not stop anywhere, the siege will be long. In besieging a city, if ten days pass with neither thunder nor rain, you must raise the siege at once: the city has powerful help. This is how to know when to attack and when to hold off.” (Reading vapours is Han military divination; the last rule, however, is the most practical in the chapter.)

King Wu said: “Well said!”

30. Farm Tools農器第三十

The close of the Dragon Teaching and one of the most interesting chapters in the book. King Wu asks whether, the realm being at peace, weapons need still be kept up. The Grand Duke answers that the equipment of war lies wholly in the ordinary business of the people, and then translates the farm into an arsenal: ploughs are the chevaux-de-frise and the caltrops, ox-carts the ramparts and the shields, hoes the halberds, straw capes and bamboo hats the armour and bucklers, the cloth the women weave the banners, the village wall the divisions of the ranks. The conclusion is that to enrich the state is to arm it. This is the earliest and most thoroughgoing statement of the union of farming and war.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “The realm is at peace and the state has no business on hand. May the implements of attack go unrepaired? May the equipment of defence go unprovided?”

The Grand Duke said: “The implements of attack and defence lie wholly in the ordinary business of the people. Ploughshare and plough-handle are their chevaux-de-frise and caltrops. Horses, oxen and carts are their ramparts and mantlets. Hoes and harrows are their spears and halberds. Straw capes and bamboo hats are their armour and bucklers. Mattock and spade, axe and saw, pestle and mortar are their siege engines. Oxen and horses are for carrying grain. Fowls and dogs are their sentries. The cloth the women weave is their banners. The men levelling the ground is their siege work. Cutting grass and thorns in spring is the drill of chariot and horse; weeding the fields in summer is the drill of foot; reaping grain and firewood in autumn is the laying in of provisions; filling the granaries in winter is what makes a firm defence. The villages ranged in fives are the army’s discipline and its tallies. The village having its clerk and the office its chief is the command structure. The village having its wall, which none may cross, is the division of the ranks. Delivering grain and taking in fodder is the commissariat. Repairing walls and clearing ditches in spring and autumn is the building of trench and rampart. So the implements of war lie wholly in the ordinary business of the people.” (The earliest and most thoroughgoing statement of the union of farming and war.)

“He who governs a state well takes from the ordinary business of the people. So he must see that their six kinds of livestock thrive, that their fields are opened, and that their dwellings are settled. Let the men have a fixed acreage to till and the women a fixed measure to weave: this is the way to enrich the state and strengthen its arms.”

King Wu said: “Well said!”

Scroll Four — The Tiger Teaching虎韜

Twelve chapters, and here the book comes down to the ground: everything in it is a particular predicament with a particular remedy. It opens with Army Equipment, an inventory for a force of ten thousand armoured men — so many chariots, so many crossbows, so many axes, so many ropes, each with its dimensions and weight. Nothing like it survives from any other pre-Han military work, and it is the passage most often cited in the study of early Chinese military technology. The eleven chapters that follow are eleven bad situations: encircled, breaking out, crossing a flooded river, facing each other across a border, deadlocked, caught in foul weather, cut off from supply, besieging a city, caught by fire, reading an empty camp. In each, King Wu proposes a situation as bad as he can make it and the Grand Duke gives a procedure. The close of Taking Ground — do not burn their stores, do not destroy their houses, do not cut the trees on their graves or in their sacred groves, do not kill those who surrender, and proclaim that “the guilt lies with one man” — is the earliest code of conduct for occupied territory in the Chinese military literature.

31. Army Equipment軍用第三十一

The full equipment of an army of ten thousand. From thirty-six great assault chariots onward it lists chariots, mantlets, crossbows, maces, axes, hammers, grapnels, caltrops, chevaux-de-frise, pontoon bridges, floats, chains, felling axes, sickles and pegs, each with its form, dimensions, weight, number and purpose. The reckoning at the end is worth noting: ten thousand armoured men, six thousand crossbows, two thousand halberds and shields, two thousand spears and shields, and three hundred skilled hands whose whole business is to keep the equipment in repair — that last item shows that the author’s army had a technical arm. Many of the objects can no longer be identified; the notes gloss only what is certain.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “When a king raises an army, are there fixed rules for the army’s equipment, the implements of attack and defence, their kinds and their numbers?”

The Grand Duke said: “A great question, my king. The implements of attack and defence each have their kinds, and in them lies the great might of an army.”

King Wu said: “I should like to hear of it.”

The Grand Duke said: “These are the great numbers for the use of arms. For ten thousand armoured men the rule provides: thirty-six great assault chariots with screens, flanked by picked men with strong crossbows, spears and halberds, twenty-four men to a chariot, running on eight-foot wheels, with flag and drum set up on the car; the tacticians call it the Terror. It breaks a firm array and defeats a strong enemy. (Many of the objects named in this chapter can no longer be identified; only what is certain is glossed.)

“Seventy-two great mantlet-and-halberd screen chariots, flanked by picked men with strong crossbows, spears and halberds, on five-foot wheels, each with a windlass repeating crossbow. They break a firm array and defeat a strong enemy.

“A hundred and forty-four small mantlet screen chariots, each with a windlass repeating crossbow, on barrow wheels; they break a firm array and defeat a strong enemy. Thirty-six great Yellow triple-shot crossbow screen chariots, flanked by picked men with strong crossbows, spears and halberds, with the Flying Duck and Lightning Shadow bolts. The Flying Duck has a red shaft and white feathering and a head of bronze; the Lightning Shadow a green shaft and red feathering and a head of iron. By day they carry crimson silk six feet long and six inches wide to make a flash; by night white silk of the same size to make a shooting star. They break a firm array and defeat foot and horse.

“Thirty-six great screen assault chariots, with mantis warriors riding together, which can strike across a line and defeat an enemy. Baggage chariots against raiding horse, also called lightning chariots, which the tacticians call the Lightning Stroke; they break a firm array and defeat foot and horse, and are used when the enemy comes on by night. A hundred and sixty light screen chariots with spears and halberds, three mantis warriors riding together, which the tacticians call the Thunderclap; they break a firm array and defeat foot and horse.

“Square-headed iron maces, twelve catties in weight, with handles five feet and over, twelve hundred of them, called Heaven’s Mace. Great-hafted axes with blades eight inches long, eight catties in weight, handles five feet and over, twelve hundred, called Heaven’s Battleaxe. Square-headed iron hammers, eight catties, handles five feet and over, twelve hundred, called Heaven’s Hammer. These defeat foot, horse and bands of raiders.

“Flying grapnels, eight inches long with barbs four inches, handles six feet and over, twelve hundred, to be thrown into the enemy’s ranks. For the army standing on the defensive: wooden mantis screens with sword blades, two fathoms wide, a hundred and twenty of them, also called chevaux-de-frise; on level ground they let foot defeat chariot and horse.

“Wooden caltrops standing two feet five inches from the ground, a hundred and twenty; they defeat foot and horse, catch a desperate enemy and cut off runaways. Swivelling short assault screens with spears and halberds, a hundred and twenty, with which the Yellow Emperor defeated Chi You; they defeat foot and horse, catch a desperate enemy and cut off runaways.

“For narrow roads and footpaths, iron caltrops with spikes four inches high, eight inches across and six feet and over in length, twelve hundred of them; they defeat foot and horse. When the enemy comes on out of the dusk to force an action and the blades are crossed, spread the ground-net, lay down two-headed caltrops and linked weaver-girl spikes, points two inches apart, twelve thousand of them. In open country and grass, breast-high short spears, twelve hundred; the rule for setting them is a foot and a half high. They defeat foot and horse, catch a desperate enemy and cut off runaways. On narrow roads and footpaths, pits in the ground with iron shackles linked in threes, a hundred and twenty of them; they defeat foot and horse, catch a desperate enemy and cut off runaways.

“For holding the gate of the camp, twelve small mantlets with spears and halberds, each with a windlass repeating crossbow. For the army on the defensive, heaven-nets and linked palisade chains, each section a fathom and a half wide and eight feet high, a hundred and twenty of them; and palisade screens with sword blades, a fathom and a half wide and eight feet high, five hundred and twenty. For crossing ditches, a flying bridge, each span a fathom and a half wide and two fathoms and over long, fitted with eight swivel windlasses and stretched with ringed cable.

“For crossing great waters, flying river-bridges a fathom and a half wide and two fathoms and over long, eight of them, stretched with ringed cable. Heaven-float iron mantises, square within and round without, four feet and over across, with their own rope nets, thirty-two of them. With the heaven-floats the flying bridge is stretched to cross great water, and this is called the Heavenly Pool, or the Heavenly Boat. For quartering in wild country, palisade and brushwood camps are built: ringed iron chains two fathoms and over long, twelve hundred; ringed great cable four inches thick and four fathoms and over long, six hundred; ringed middle cable two inches thick and four fathoms and over long, two hundred; ringed small cord two fathoms and over long, twelve thousand. Against rain, boards to cover the heavy carts, hemp-bound and dovetailed, four feet wide and four fathoms and over long, one to each cart, stretched with iron pegs.

“Great felling axes, eight catties, handles three feet and over, three hundred. Long-handled mattocks with blades six inches wide, handles five feet and over, three hundred. Bronze-shod rammers, five feet and over, three hundred. Eagle-claw and breast-shaped iron rakes, handles seven feet and over, three hundred. Breast-shaped iron forks, handles seven feet and over, three hundred. Two-pronged breast-shaped iron forks, handles seven feet and over, three hundred.

“Great sickles for cutting grass and brush, handles seven feet and over, three hundred. Great mantlets with blades of eight catties, handles six feet, three hundred. Ringed iron pegs three feet and over, three hundred. Great mallets for driving pegs, five catties, handles two feet and over, a hundred and twenty. Ten thousand armoured men, six thousand strong crossbows, two thousand halberds and shields, two thousand spears and shields, and three hundred skilled hands to repair the siege equipment and sharpen the weapons. These are the great numbers of the equipment of an army when it is raised.” (The three hundred skilled hands are worth noticing: this army of ten thousand has a standing technical arm.)

King Wu said: “True indeed.”

32. The Three Arrays三陣第三十二

A very short chapter. The array of heaven is the position of sun, moon, stars and the Dipper’s handle; the array of earth is the advantage of hills and streams before, behind and on either side; the array of man is the disposition of chariot and horse, the civil and the martial. A great deal of later theory grows out of these few lines.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “What are what men call the array of heaven, the array of earth and the array of man?”

The Grand Duke said: “Sun and moon, the stars and the handle of the Dipper, one to the left and one to the right, one facing and one turned away — this is the array of heaven. Hills and streams have likewise their advantage before and behind and on either side — this is called the array of earth. The use of chariot and horse, the use of the civil and the martial — this is called the array of man.”

King Wu said: “Well said!”

33. Fighting at Speed疾戰第三十三

What to do when surrounded. The Grand Duke first names the situation — “the most straitened army in the world” — and then gives the only rule: used violently it wins, used slowly it loses. Form the four-sided assault array and throw the chariots and best horse at the enemy to break up his order. The second half asks how to turn a successful breakout into a victory.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “The enemy has surrounded me, cut me off before and behind and severed my supply route. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “This is the most straitened army in the world. Used violently it wins; used slowly it loses. In this case form the four-sided assault array and throw the war chariots and the best horse at the enemy to startle and confuse him, then strike at speed; so you may go where you please.”

King Wu said: “If I have already broken out of the encirclement and wish to make a victory of it, what should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Let the left wing go quickly to the left and the right wing quickly to the right, and do not contend with the enemy for the road; let the centre go now forward and now back. However many the enemy, his general will be put to flight.”

34. Certain Escape必出第三十四

A complete night breakout. The men carry black flags and gags in their mouths; the strong and swift go first to level the enemy’s rampart and open the road; crossbowmen lie in wait behind; the weak troops and the chariots and horse go in the middle. Once out, fires and drums everywhere — “as though they came out of the earth, as though they fell from the sky.” Then a further difficulty: deep water ahead and no boats. The answer includes burning one’s own baggage and grain first, and telling the men plainly: fight bravely and live, fight otherwise and die.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords, the enemy closes in on four sides and surrounds me, cuts off my way home and severs my food. He is numerous and well supplied, and the defiles he holds are strong. I am resolved to break out. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “In breaking out, equipment is the treasure and bold fighting comes first. Find out where the enemy is empty and unmanned, and there you can certainly break out. Let officers and men carry black flags and their weapons, with gags in their mouths, and go out by night. Men of strength and speed who will charge a general go in front to level the rampart and open the road for the army; picked men with strong crossbows lie in wait behind; the weaker troops and the chariots and horse are in the middle. When the array is formed, move off slowly and take great care to raise no alarm. Let the assault screen chariots guard front and rear, and the great mantlet chariots the flanks. If the enemy takes the alarm, let the strong men who charge generals strike at speed and press forward; the weaker troops and the chariots and horse close up behind; the picked crossbowmen stay hidden. Watch closely for the enemy’s pursuit, and let the ambush strike his rear at speed. Many fires and many drums, as though they came out of the earth, as though they fell from the sky. With the whole army fighting bravely, none can withstand me.”

King Wu said: “Ahead there is deep water, a wide ditch, a deep pit; I wish to get across and have neither boats nor oars. The enemy is entrenched and bars my army’s way and blocks my road home; his scouts are always on guard; every defile is held; his chariots and horse cut me off in front and his best men strike me from behind. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Deep water, wide ditches and deep pits the enemy does not usually guard; or if he guards them, his troops there are few. In such a case use the river-bridges, the swivel gear and the Heavenly Pool to take my army over. Let the men of strength and the picked troops go where I point, break through the enemy’s array, and every one of them fight to the death. Burn my own baggage first and burn my own grain, and tell the officers and men plainly: fight bravely and live; fight otherwise and die. As each party gets clear, let my following corps come up, set beacon fires and post scouts far out, and always keep to woods, grave mounds and broken ground. The enemy’s chariots and horse will certainly not dare to pursue far. Use the fire as a mark: let those who get out first halt when they reach the fire and form the four-sided assault array. Then my whole army will be sharp and bold in the fight, and none can stop me.” (Burning one’s own baggage first is a way of cutting off retreat and steadying the men.)

King Wu said: “Well said!”

35. The Conduct of an Army軍略第三十五

The question is about crossing a river in a storm; the Grand Duke does not answer it directly but carries the matter back to peacetime — “if forethought is not exercised beforehand and the equipment is not provided, if the drill is not trusted and the men are not practised, such a force cannot be the army of a king.” He then runs through the equipment by function. The last line is the answer: when the army has its equipment, what has the commander to worry about? Preparedness is what an emergency is made of.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords, I meet deep ravines and great valleys and difficult water. My army has not finished crossing when a violent rain comes on and the flood rises; the rear cannot join the van; I have neither boat nor bridge and no water or fodder to draw on. I wish to get all across and not have the army delayed. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Whoever leads an army and commands a multitude, if forethought is not exercised beforehand and the equipment is not provided, if the drill is not habitually trusted and the men are not practised — such a force cannot be the army of a king. Whenever an army has great business in hand, there is nothing it is not practised in using. For attacking cities there are the covered ram and the assault tower; for seeing into a city, the scaling ladder and the flying turret; for the army on the march or at a halt, the assault chariot and the great mantlet; for holding front and rear, cutting roads and barring streets, picked men with strong crossbows to strike at both flanks; for making camp, the heaven-net, the palisade, the chevaux-de-frise and the caltrop. By day men climb the scaling ladder to look out and set up banners of five colours; by night they light ten thousand beacons, beat the thunder drums, shake the hand-drums and bells and blow the reed pipes. For crossing ditches there are the flying bridge, the swivel gear, the windlass and the dovetailed beam; for crossing great waters, the Heavenly Pool and the river-bridge; for going up against the stream, the sea-float and the river-cutter. When the army has its equipment, what has the commander to worry about?” (The answer goes past the question and is the better for it: to meet an emergency is to have prepared for it. A repeated “the Grand Duke said” in the base text here is deleted.)

36. Facing the Border臨境第三十六

Two armies across a border, neither daring to move. Divide into three: let the front deepen its ditches and raise its ramparts and not come out, let the rear lay in grain, and send picked men against the centre. When the enemy sees through it, add a layer: send the front out daily to offer battle and wear out his mind, and set the old and weak to drag brushwood and raise dust, drumming and shouting, within a hundred paces of him.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “The enemy and I face each other across a border; he can come over and I can go over; both arrays are firm and neither dares begin. I wish to go over and fall on him, but he can do the same to me. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Divide the force into three. Let my van deepen its ditches and raise its ramparts and not come out; let it set out its banners, beat its drums and be wholly on the defensive. Let my rear lay in much grain, and do not let the enemy know my intention. Then send out my picked men to fall secretly on his centre, striking where he does not expect it and attacking where he is unprepared. Not knowing my situation, the enemy will halt and not come.”

King Wu said: “The enemy knows my situation and has penetrated my designs; whatever I do he learns of it. His picked men lie in the deep grass, they cut me off in the narrow roads and strike me where it suits them. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Let my van go out daily to offer battle and so wear out his mind. Let my old and weak men drag brushwood and raise dust, drumming and shouting as they come and go, now out on his left, now on his right, never more than a hundred paces from him. His general will certainly be worn out and his men startled. Then the enemy will not dare to come on; and with my sorties never ceasing, some falling on his inside and some on his outside, let the whole army strike at speed, and the enemy must be beaten.” (Dragging brushwood to raise dust is the standard way of feigning a large movement.)

37. Movement and Stillness動靜第三十七

Equal forces, neither daring to begin: how to manufacture panic. Troops laid in ambush ten miles off on both flanks, chariots and horse round to the enemy’s front and rear a hundred miles away, many banners and many drums, and at the first contact everything rises at once with a roar. When the enemy is forewarned, a costlier method: scouts out five days before, an ambush prepared on ground from which the enemy cannot withdraw, then a show of weakness — banners drawn back, ranks opened — a contact, a retreat of three miles, and the ambush.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords, I face an enemy of equal force. The two arrays are in sight of one another, numbers and strength are equal, and neither dares begin. I wish to make the enemy’s commanders afraid and his men disheartened, his ranks unsteady, his rear ready to run and his van looking back again and again; then to come on with a roar and drive him off. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “In such a case send out my troops to lie in ambush on both his flanks ten li from him, and let the chariots and horse pass round to his front and rear a hundred li away. Multiply the banners and add to the gongs and drums. When battle is joined, let everything rise at once with a shout. The enemy’s general must take fright and his army be thrown into panic; the many will not save the few and the high will not wait for the low, and the enemy must be beaten.”

King Wu said: “The ground on the enemy’s side does not allow an ambush on his flanks, nor can the chariots and horse pass round him. He knows what I intend and has made his dispositions beforehand. My men are disheartened and my commanders afraid, and I should not win a battle. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “A searching question, my king. In such a case send out my distant scouts five days before the battle to watch his movements; wait closely for his coming and prepare an ambush for him, choosing always ground from which there is no withdrawal. Avoid the enemy, draw my banners back, open out my ranks, and be sure to run in front of him. Meet him, and at the first contact retire; strike the gong and halt. Fall back three miles and then turn, and let the ambush rise — some driving into his flanks, some striking front and rear. With the whole army fighting at speed, the enemy must be put to flight.”

King Wu said: “Well said!”

38. Gong and Drum金鼓第三十八

Extreme cold or heat, rain day and night for ten days; the ditches have collapsed, the passes are unguarded, the sentries are slack, and the enemy comes by night. The Grand Duke lays down the rule first — an army is made secure by vigilance and ruined by slackness — and then gives the practice: challenging on the ramparts without a break, every man with a flag, inside and outside in sight of one another, calls passed from man to man with never a gap in the sound, and all facing outward; three thousand men to a post. The enemy, finding you ready, turns back exhausted, and that is the moment to pursue.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords, I face the enemy; but the weather is bitterly cold or fiercely hot, and rain falls day and night for ten days without ceasing. The ditches and ramparts are all broken down, the defiles cannot be held, the scouts are slack and the men off their guard. The enemy comes by night, the army is unprepared, and high and low are in confusion. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “An army is made firm by vigilance and ruined by slackness. Let the challenge on my ramparts never cease; let every man hold a flag; let those within and those without be in sight of each other, passing the word by call so that the sound is never wanting, and let all face outward. Three thousand men to a post, each warned and bound to his charge. If the enemy comes and sees how my army is on the watch, he will come up to it and turn back, and his strength will be spent and his spirit slack; then send out my picked men to follow and strike him.” (The challenge — “Who goes there?” — is one of the earliest records of a sentry’s password in Chinese.)

King Wu said: “The enemy, knowing I shall follow him, lays an ambush of his picked men and feigns flight without stopping. I run into the ambush and turn back, and he strikes now my van, now my rear, now presses on my ramparts. My army is in great fear, disordered and out of its places. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Divide into three bodies and follow in pursuit, but do not pass his ambush. Let the three bodies arrive together, some striking his front and rear, some driving into his flanks. With signals clear and orders exact, strike at speed and press forward, and the enemy must be beaten.”

39. Cut Off絕道第三十九

The supply route cut and the flanks turned. The answer is not tactical but topographical: on entering enemy country, examine the ground first and take the advantage of hills, forests, defiles, springs and woods; hold the passes and bridges. The second half gives the standing order of march: scouts two hundred li out, assault chariots formed into a moving rampart when the ground is bad, and two following corps behind at a hundred li and fifty li — one of the earliest echeloned orders of march on record.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords, I hold my ground against the enemy. He cuts my supply route and passes round my front and rear. If I fight I cannot win, if I stand I cannot last. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Whenever you go deep into an enemy’s country you must examine the lie of the land and seek what is favourable. Make yourself secure by hills and forests, defiles, springs and woods; guard the passes and bridges carefully; and know besides the advantages of the ground about the towns and the grave mounds. Do this and my army is secure; the enemy cannot cut my supply route nor pass round my front and rear.”

King Wu said: “My army has passed through great woods, wide marshes and level ground; my junction has miscarried, and I am suddenly close upon the enemy. I cannot win by fighting nor stand by defending. The enemy overlaps my flanks and passes round my front and rear, and the whole army is in great fear. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “The rule in leading an army is always to send distant scouts out first, two hundred li from the enemy, and find out exactly where he is. When the ground is unfavourable, advance with the assault chariots formed as a moving rampart, and place two following corps in the rear, the farther at a hundred li and the nearer at fifty. Then if an alarm comes, van and rear know of it together; my army is always whole and firm and cannot be broken.” (An early instance of an echeloned order of march: main body, distant scouts, two rear guards.)

King Wu said: “Well said!”

40. Taking Ground略地第四十

Siege warfare. The regular method is investment: chariots and horse well out, the city sealed inside and out, grain cut off and nothing brought in, and the commander surrenders. Then the case of a garrison that will fight to the death, where the key is to “leave a gap in the road so as to work on their minds” — give them a way out and they will not fight to the last. The chapter closes with the most important passage of military law in the book: do not burn the stores, do not destroy the houses, do not cut the trees on the graves or in the sacred groves, do not kill those who surrender or those you have taken, and proclaim to the population: “the guilt lies with one man.”

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Having won and gone deep, taking the enemy’s ground, there is a great city I cannot reduce. A detached force of his holds a defile and faces me. I wish to besiege the city and fear that his detached force may come suddenly and press me, and that inside and outside they will join and hold me front and rear. The army is in great confusion, high and low are alarmed. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “In besieging a city the chariots and horse must be kept well out; the encampment must be vigilant and cut the city off within and without. When those inside run out of grain and nothing can be brought in from outside, the people of the city are in terror and their commander will surrender.”

King Wu said: “Those inside are out of grain and nothing can be brought in; so they swear together in secret and make a common plan, come out by night, and being desperate fight to the death. Their chariots, horse and picked men strike now at my inner lines, now at my outer; my men are confused and the whole army in disorder. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “In such a case divide into three bodies and take up ground with careful attention to the terrain. Find out exactly where the enemy’s detached force is, and where his great city and his outlying forts are; then leave a gap in the road so as to work upon their minds, but guard it carefully and let nothing slip. The enemy in his fear will make either for the hills and woods or for a great city. Drive off his detached force, and let the chariots and horse cut across its front well out, letting none escape. Those in the city, thinking that the first to leave have found the road, will send out their trained and picked men, and only the old and weak will be left. Then let the chariots and horse drive deep and far, and the enemy’s army will not dare to come near. Take care not to give battle; only cut his supply route, invest him and hold him, and be sure to make it long. Do not burn their stores; do not destroy their houses; do not cut the trees on their graves or in their sacred groves. Do not kill those who surrender; do not put to death those you have taken. Show them humanity and right, and deal with them in great generosity. Tell their officers and people: ‘The guilt lies with one man.’ Do this, and the realm will submit in concord.” (“Leaving a gap” is the Sunzi maxim that a surrounded army must be left a way out. The closing proclamation is the source of the later Chinese doctrine of a punitive war waged against a ruler and not a people.)

King Wu said: “Well said!”

41. Fighting with Fire火戰第四十一

What to do under a fire attack. The method is counter-intuitive: as soon as the fire is seen, set fire to the ground in front of you and let it spread, then to the ground behind, and withdraw on to the burnt ground and hold it — fire will not cross where fire has been. When the enemy fires all four sides and comes on out of the burnt ground himself, the Grand Duke is honest: form the four-sided assault array and put crossbows on the flanks, and “by this method there is neither victory nor defeat.” It is the one place in the book where he admits to a draw.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords, I meet deep and tangled grass that surrounds my army before and behind and on both sides. The army has marched some hundreds of li, and men and horses are tired and have halted. The enemy, taking advantage of dry weather and a high wind, fires the ground to windward of me, and his chariots, horse and picked men lie firmly in ambush behind me. The army is in terror and scatters in flight. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “In such a case use the scaling ladder and the flying turret to look far out to left and right and watch front and rear closely. When you see the fire rise, at once fire the ground in front of you and let it spread wide, and fire the ground behind you as well. If the enemy comes, draw the army back on to the burnt ground and hold it firmly. The enemy, coming on and still behind me, will see the fire rise and will certainly keep his distance. Holding the burnt ground, with strong crossbows and picked men guarding my flanks, I fire the ground before and behind me again. Do this and the enemy cannot harm me.” (Fire will not cross ground that has already burnt — the classic counter to a fire attack.)

King Wu said: “The enemy fires the ground on both my flanks and before and behind as well; the smoke covers my army, and his main body rises against me from the burnt ground. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “In such a case form the four-sided assault array, with strong crossbows on my flanks; by this method there is neither victory nor defeat.” (The one place in the book where the Grand Duke admits to a draw.)

42. The Empty Camp壘虛第四十二

How to tell an empty camp. Climb and look down: drums that give no sound and bells that do not ring, many birds over the ramparts and none of them startled, no haze of habitation above — the enemy has set up straw men. Again: if he decamps suddenly and does not go far, and turns back before he has settled, he is driving his men too hard; driven too hard, front and rear come apart, and once they come apart the ranks must fall into disorder. Attack at once, and even the smaller force wins.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “How does one know whether the enemy’s camp is full or empty, and whether he has come of himself or gone of himself?”

The Grand Duke said: “A general must know the way of heaven above, the advantage of ground below, and the affairs of men between. Climb high and look down, to observe the enemy’s changes. Look at his ramparts and you will know whether he is full or empty; look at his men and you will know whether he is coming or going.”

King Wu said: “How is it known?”

The Grand Duke said: “Listen: his drums give no sound and his bells do not ring. Look: many birds are over his ramparts and they are not startled, and there is no haze of habitation above. Then you may be sure the enemy is practising a deception and has set up straw men. If the enemy decamps suddenly and does not go far, and turns back before he has settled, he is driving his men too hard. Driven too hard, van and rear do not keep their order; out of order, the ranks must fall into confusion. In that case send troops out at once and strike him; the smaller force will beat the larger.” (That the birds are not startled is the surest sign of an empty camp, and later military writers cite this passage repeatedly.)

Scroll Five — The Leopard Teaching豹韜

Eight chapters, all on fighting in difficult country or at a disadvantage: in forest, against a raid that has reached one’s own city wall, against a stronger enemy, on a bare mountain, across a river, with inferior numbers, in a defile. Six of the eight open with the same formula — “leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords” — which says what kind of war the Six Secret Teachings has in mind: an isolated force operating on someone else’s ground, whose first question is always how not to be trapped there. Two of the chapter titles contain a term worth a note. The text glosses it at the end: “what is called wuyun is a scattering as of crows and a gathering as of clouds, changing without end.” The Song edition writes the first character as “birds” rather than “crows” throughout, which reads more naturally; the base text and the Siku edition both have “crows,” which is kept here with the variant recorded.

43. Fighting in Forest林戰第四十三

A single exchange. Crossbows outside, halberds and shields within; cut away the undergrowth and widen the roads for movement; set the banners high to blind the enemy; where the trees stand thin bring up horse with the chariots in front; where the going is broken form the assault array front and rear. The closing rule — fight by turns and rest by turns, each to his own post — recurs throughout the book.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords, I meet a great forest and face the enemy with the forest divided between us. I wish to be secure in defence and to win in battle. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Let my army divide into assault arrays and take ground convenient for the troops, with the bows and crossbows on the outside and the halberds and shields within. Clear away the undergrowth and widen my roads as much as possible, so as to have room to fight. Set the banners high, and warn the army strictly not to let the enemy learn my situation. This is called forest fighting. The method of forest fighting is to keep my spears and halberds together in files. Where the trees in the forest stand thin, bring up the horse in support with the chariots in front; strike when you see an opening and hold when you do not. Where the forest is much broken, be sure to form the assault array to guard front and rear. With the army fighting at speed, however many the enemy, his general will be put to flight. Fight by turns and rest by turns, each to his own post: this is the discipline of forest fighting.”

44. The Sudden Attack突戰第四十四

An enemy who has driven deep and reached the city wall. The Grand Duke names the thing first — a “bursting force” — and points out its weakness: having burst in, its beasts have no fodder and its men no grain, so it can only keep pressing forward. The counter is to bring a detached force from an outlying town against its rear, the attack timed for the last, moonless night of the month. The second half is a designed trap: a rampart four li from the city, a sally port every hundred paces with chevaux-de-frise outside it, chariots and horse out beyond and picked men hidden; light troops make contact and feign flight while the walls go on drumming as though the city could only defend itself — and when the enemy has closed up under the wall, the ambush comes out of the sally ports.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “The enemy has driven deep and far into my territory, plundering my land and carrying off my cattle and horses; his whole army has arrived and is pressing up against my city wall. My men are in great fear, and the people are being bound and taken prisoner. I wish to be secure in defence and to win in battle. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Such an enemy is called a bursting force. His cattle and horses can find no fodder and his men are out of grain, so he can only strike violently and press on. Let a detached force from my outlying towns pick out its best men and strike his rear at speed. Fix the day exactly, and let the meeting be on the last night of the month. With the army fighting at speed, however many the enemy, his general may be taken.” (The last night of the lunar month is moonless, and so suited to a night attack.)

King Wu said: “The enemy has divided into three or four bodies; some fight and plunder my land, others halt and collect my cattle and horses; his main body has not all arrived, but he sends raiders to press up against my wall, so that my army is afraid. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Watch the enemy closely; while he has not all arrived, make my dispositions and wait for him. Build a rampart four li from the city, with the gongs, drums and banners all set out and displayed, and a separate body laid in ambush. On my rampart put many good strong crossbows, and a sally port every hundred paces, with chevaux-de-frise before each port; let the chariots and horse be outside, and the strong and picked men lie hidden. When the enemy comes, let my light troops engage and then feign flight, while on the city wall the banners are set up and the drums beaten as though I were wholly on the defensive. The enemy, taking me for a garrison that can only hold the wall, will press up under it; then send out my ambush to drive into his middle, or to strike him from outside. With the whole army fighting at speed, some striking his front and some his rear, the brave will get no chance to fight and the quick no time to run. This is called the sudden attack. However many the enemy, his general must flee.”

King Wu said: “Well said!”

45. When the Enemy Is Strong敵強第四十五

The enemy outnumbers and outmatches us and attacks by night. The Grand Duke names it — a “startling raid” — and rules on it: the advantage lies in going out to fight, not in standing on the defensive. The second half contains the best night-fighting detail in early Chinese writing: every man carries a torch and every two men beat one drum; a prearranged signal puts out the torches and stops the drums together.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords, I meet the enemy’s assault force on equal terms. He is many and I few, he strong and I weak. He comes by night, attacking now my left and now my right, and the army is shaken. I wish to win in battle and be secure in defence. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Such an enemy is called a startling raid. The advantage lies in going out to fight; you cannot stand on the defensive. Choose my picked men, strong crossbows and chariots and horse for the two wings, strike his front at speed and press his rear hard, some striking his outer face and some his inner. His men must fall into disorder and his general take fright.”

King Wu said: “The enemy bars my front at a distance and presses my rear hard; he has cut off my best troops and severed my picked men. Inside and outside cannot hear one another, the army is thrown into confusion and all scatter in flight. The men have no will to fight and the officers no mind to hold. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “A clear-sighted question, my king. Make the signals and orders exact and send out my brave and picked men who will charge a general, every man carrying a torch and every two men beating one drum. Be certain where the enemy is, and strike now his outer face and now his inner. Let a quiet signal pass between us; order the torches put out and let all the drums stop together. Inside and outside answer one another and every appointed time is kept. With the whole army fighting at speed, the enemy must be destroyed.”

King Wu said: “Well said.”

46. When the Enemy Is Fierce敵武第四十六

A sudden encounter with a stronger and fiercer enemy, our own army already running and not to be stopped. Again the naming — a “beaten force” — and the judgment: handled well it wins, handled badly it perishes. Picked crossbowmen are laid in ambush and the chariots and best horse patrol always about three li off the front and rear; when the enemy pursues, they strike his flanks — and then “the men who are running will halt of themselves.”

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords, I meet the enemy suddenly; he is very numerous and very fierce, and his war chariots and best horse ring me about on both sides. My whole army is shaken and its flight cannot be stopped. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Such a force is called a beaten army. Handled well it wins; handled badly it perishes.”

King Wu said: “What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Lay my picked men and strong crossbows in ambush, with the war chariots and best horse on both wings, always about three li from the front and rear. When the enemy pursues me, send out my chariots and horse against his flanks. Do this, and the enemy is thrown into confusion and the men of mine who are running will halt of themselves.” (The way to stop a rout is not to shout at it but to let it see that the enemy is in disorder too.)

King Wu said: “The enemy’s chariots and horse match mine; he is many and I few, he strong and I weak. He comes on in good order and with picked men, and my array dares not stand against him. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Choose my picked men and strong crossbows and lay them in ambush on both sides, and let the chariots and horse stand in a firm array. When the enemy has passed my ambush, let massed crossbows shoot into his flanks, and let the chariots, horse and picked troops strike his army at speed, some at the front and some at the rear. However many the enemy, his general must flee.”

King Wu said: “Well said!”

47. Fighting on the Mountain烏雲山兵第四十七

An isolated force on a bare high mountain, attacked on all sides. Two dangers are stated first: hold the height and you are penned on it; hold the foot and you are shut in below. Being already on the mountain, form the wuyun array, guarding the shaded and the sunlit slopes alike, and the left and the right alike; put troops on the outer face wherever the enemy can climb; block the passes and valley mouths with assault chariots; set the banners high. This is called a “mountain city.”

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords, I meet a high mountain of massive rock, standing up bare and without trees or grass, with the enemy on every side. My army is afraid and the men bewildered. I wish to be secure in defence and to win in battle. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Whenever an army holds the height of a mountain it is penned there by the enemy, and whenever it holds the foot it is shut in by him. Being already established on the mountain, you must form the wuyun array. In that array both the shaded and the sunlit sides are provided for: some camp on the shaded side and some on the sunlit. Holding the sunlit side, guard the shaded; holding the shaded, guard the sunlit; holding the left, guard the right; holding the right, guard the left. Wherever on the mountain the enemy can climb, put troops on the outer face; block the crossroads and the valley mouths with assault chariots; set the banners high and warn the army strictly not to let the enemy learn my situation. This is called a mountain city. When the ranks are set, the men arrayed, the orders in force and the orthodox and the unorthodox disposed, let each body form an assault array on the outer face of the mountain, taking ground convenient for the troops, and then divide the chariots and horse into the wuyun array. With the army fighting at speed, however many the enemy, his general may be taken.”

48. Fighting on the Water烏雲澤兵第四十八

Facing each other across a river, the enemy rich and numerous, we poor and few, and our camp on salt flats with no town and no timber for miles — the worst position the book imagines. The first answer is realistic: get out — deceive him and go quickly, leaving an ambush behind. The second is to buy a road: “in seeking a way out, gold and jade come first; you must work through the enemy’s own envoy.” Only the third is a battle plan. The base text passes straight from “my army is beaten and running” to “form the assault array,” omitting a whole exchange of fifty characters, restored here from the Song and Siku editions; see the colophon.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords, I face the enemy across water. He is rich and numerous, I poor and few. To cross and strike him I am not strong enough; to wait him out, I have too little grain. My camp is on salt flats with no town on any side and no trees or grass. The army has nothing to forage and the cattle and horses nothing to graze. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “The army is unprovided, the men without grain and the beasts without fodder. In such a case find an opportunity, deceive the enemy and get away quickly, leaving an ambush behind you.” (Both old editions give the three clauses in a different order.)

King Wu said: “The enemy cannot be deceived. My men are bewildered; he passes round my front and rear, and my army is beaten and running. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “In seeking a way out, gold and jade come first; you must work through the enemy’s own envoy, and subtlety is the treasure.” (This paragraph and the next, fifty characters in all, are missing from the base text and are restored from the Song and Siku editions; see the colophon.)

King Wu said: “The enemy knows of my ambush; his main body will not cross, and a detached commander sends parties over the water. My army is in great fear. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “In such a case divide into assault arrays and take ground convenient for the troops. Wait until they have all come over, then send out my ambush to strike their rear at speed, with strong crossbows on both flanks shooting into them left and right, and the chariots and horse divided into the wuyun array guarding front and rear; and let the whole army fight at speed. Seeing me engaged, the enemy’s main body will certainly cross the water. Then send out my ambush again to strike its rear at speed, with the chariots and horse driving into its flanks; however many the enemy, his general will be put to flight. In all use of arms the great point is this: on meeting the enemy and going into action, always dispose the assault array and take ground convenient for the troops, and then divide the chariots and horse into the wuyun array. This is the unorthodox in the use of arms. What is called wuyun is a scattering as of crows and a gathering as of clouds, changing without end.” (The Song edition reads “birds” for “crows” throughout, here and in the two chapter titles; the base text and the Siku edition have “crows,” which is kept, with the variant recorded.)

King Wu said: “Well said!”

49. Fighting with Few少眾第四十九

Two rules: to fight many with few, use the hour (dusk) and the ground (deep grass, a narrow road); to fight the strong when weak, use diplomacy (a great state as ally, a neighbour’s help). King Wu objects that he has none of these. The answer is the best thing in the chapter: if the conditions do not exist, manufacture them — a feint to send him round by a longer road so that he passes through the grass and is caught by nightfall; and as for allies, “make the presents rich and the language humble.”

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “I wish to strike many with few and the strong with the weak. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “To strike many with few, you must do it at dusk, lying in deep grass and taking him in a narrow road. To strike the strong when weak, you must have a great state for ally and a neighbouring state’s help.”

King Wu said: “I have no deep grass and no narrow road; the enemy has already come up and it is not near dusk; I have no great state for ally and no neighbour’s help. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Make a false display and lure him on, to bewilder his general; send him round by a longer road so that he passes through deep grass; stretch out his march so that he is caught by dusk. When his van has not yet crossed the water and his rear has not yet made camp, send out my ambush to strike his flanks at speed, with the chariots and horse throwing his front and rear into confusion. However many the enemy, his general will be put to flight. As for allies: serve the ruler of a great state and humble yourself to the men of a neighbouring one; make the presents rich and the language humble. Do this, and you will have a great state for ally and a neighbour’s help.” (If the conditions do not exist, manufacture them: nowhere in the book is the principle of “going along with circumstances” used more freely.)

King Wu said: “Well said!”

50. Dividing a Defile分險第五十

The close of the Leopard Teaching. Two armies divide a defile, mine with hills to the left and water to the right, his the other way about. Hold the left of the hill and guard the right at once, and the reverse; if there is deep water and no boats, cross by the Heavenly Pool; widen the road as soon as you are over; assault chariots front and rear, crossbows deployed, passes and valley mouths blocked with chariots, banners high — this is called an “army city.” The standing method for broken country is chariots in front, great mantlets as guard, picked crossbowmen on the wings, three thousand men to a post, the three wings attacking together, and those who have fought falling back to rest: “fight by turns and rest by turns until the victory is won.”

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “Leading an army deep into the territory of the feudal lords, I meet the enemy in a defile. On my side the hills are to the left and the water to the right; on his, the hills to the right and the water to the left, and we divide the defile between us. I wish to be secure in defence and to win in battle. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Holding the left of the hill, guard the right at once; holding the right, guard the left at once. If the defile has deep water and there are no boats, take my army over by the Heavenly Pool. As soon as a party is across, widen my road quickly to have room to fight. Put assault chariots front and rear and deploy the strong crossbows, so that the ranks are everywhere firm; block the crossroads and the valley mouths with assault chariots and set the banners high: this is called an army city. In all fighting in broken country the method is assault chariots in front and great mantlets as guard, with picked men and strong crossbows on my wings; three thousand men to a post; always dispose the assault array and take ground convenient for the troops. Let the left wing go left, the right wing right and the centre by the centre, attacking forward together; and let those who have been in action fall back to their own posts. Fight by turns and rest by turns until the victory is won.” (The “army city” here and the “mountain city” of the previous chapter are the same idea: a field camp worked up into a defensible town.)

King Wu said: “Well said!”

Scroll Six — The Dog Teaching犬韜

Ten chapters closing the book, on how an army is put together: how columns are brought to a rendezvous (Dispersal and Concentration), when it is right to strike (The Martial Vanguard), how men are sorted into units by temper and circumstance (Training Men), how one trains from a single soldier up to a million (Teaching Battle), the exchange rate between chariot, horse and foot (Equalising Forces), the physical standards for chariot and cavalry troopers, the fatal and the favourable ground for each, and finally how infantry deal with chariots and horse. Three passages stand out. Training Men sorts the soldiers into eleven units by motive — the reckless, the shock troops, the men avenging a dead commander, the poor and angry, the sons-in-law and former captives who want their names cleared, the pardoned convicts escaping their disgrace — the earliest classification of troops by psychology in Chinese. Teaching Battle gives the method of training by successive doubling that Chinese armies were still using in the sixteenth century. And Equalising Forces gives numerical equivalences between arms — one chariot to eighty foot on open ground, half that in broken country — the only such table in pre-Han literature.

51. Dispersal and Concentration分合第五十一

The rendezvous. The commander fixes the place and the day, then sends written orders to every officer appointing a time; each assembles at his own point. The day of battle is announced plainly, down to the hour by the water-clock. The commander pitches camp and forms up, sets a gnomon at the gate and clears the road to wait. As the officers arrive their order is noted: early, rewarded; late, beheaded. The chapter is about one thing only — time.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “When a king leads an army and the forces are in several places, and the commander wishes to appoint a rendezvous for a general action and to publish the rewards and punishments sworn to, how is it done?”

The Grand Duke said: “In all use of arms the multitude of the army has its dispersals and concentrations. The commanding general first fixes the ground and the day of battle, then sends written orders to the several officers appointing a time; for a siege each assembles at his own point. He announces the day of battle plainly, with the hour fixed by the water-clock. The commander pitches his camp and forms his array, sets up a gnomon at the gate of the camp, clears the road and waits. As the officers arrive their order is checked: he who comes before his time is rewarded, he who comes after is beheaded. Do this, and near and far come hurrying in, the whole army arrives together, and their strength is joined for the battle.”

52. The Martial Vanguard武鋒第五十二

When it is right to strike. Fourteen changes: the enemy newly assembled; men and horses unfed; the weather against him; the ground not taken; on the march; off his guard; tired; the general out of touch with his men; after a long road; crossing water; with no time to spare; in a defile; ranks broken; frightened. One clause each: the briskest chapter in the book.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “The essential in the use of arms is to have war chariots and good horse, to gallop at the array with picked men, and to strike when one sees an opening. When is it possible to strike?”

The Grand Duke said: “He who would strike should examine closely the enemy’s fourteen changes. When a change appears, strike, and the enemy must be beaten.”

King Wu said: “May I hear the fourteen changes?”

The Grand Duke said: “The enemy newly assembled — strike. Men and horses unfed — strike. The season against him — strike. The ground not taken — strike. On the march — strike. Off his guard — strike. Tired — strike. The general out of touch with his men — strike. After a long road — strike. Crossing water — strike. With no time to spare — strike. In broken country and a narrow road — strike. Ranks broken — strike. Frightened — strike.”

53. Training Men練士第五十三

Sorting the men into units by temper and circumstance. Eleven units: those who will face the blade, those who will break a line, the keen and well-armed, the strong who can tear apart a drum or a standard, the swift runners, the ministers out of favour who want to make good, the sons of dead commanders who want revenge, the poor and angry who want satisfaction, the sons-in-law and former captives who want their names cleared, the pardoned convicts escaping their disgrace, and the men of skill who can carry a load a long way. The last five are held together not by strength but by each man’s private grievance — the earliest classification of troops by motive in Chinese.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “What is the way of training men?”

The Grand Duke said: “In the army there are men of great strength and courage who will face death and take a wound gladly: gather them into one unit and call them the men who face the blade. There are men of keen spirit, stout, brave and violent: gather them into one and call them the men who break a line. There are men of striking appearance who carry long swords and march in step and keep their ranks: gather them into one and call them the keen and brave. There are men who can tear open a hook, strong and full of force, who can smash a drum to pieces and bring down a standard: gather them into one and call them the men of strength. There are men who can climb a height and cover a distance, light of foot and good runners: gather them into one and call them the raiders. There are former royal ministers who have lost their place and wish to make good again: gather them into one and call them the men who fight to the death. There are sons and younger brothers of commanders killed in battle who wish to avenge their general: gather them into one and call them the men of deadly indignation. There are men poor and angry who wish to satisfy themselves: gather them into one and call them the men resolved to die. There are sons-in-law taken into their wives’ families and men who have been captives, who wish to cover over their names: gather them into one and call them the men who would wipe out the dullness. (A son-in-law living in his wife’s house was of low status under the Qin and Han and was regularly conscripted.)

“There are convicts who have been pardoned and wish to escape their disgrace: gather them into one and call them the men who have their chance. There are men whose skill is more than common and who can carry a load a long way: gather them into one and call them the men held ready. This is the training of an army’s men, and it must be clearly understood.” (The last five units are held together not by strength but by each man’s own grievance — the earliest classification of troops by motive in Chinese.)

54. Teaching Battle教戰第五十四

Very short and very famous. Training proceeds by successive multiplication: teach one man and put him with ten; teach ten and put them with a hundred; a hundred, a thousand, ten thousand, the whole army, a million. The method was still in use in the sixteenth century in Qi Jiguang’s drill books. The precondition is stated first: the signals of gong and drum must be fixed and the orders thrice published.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “With the whole army assembled, I wish to have the men thoroughly practised in the teaching of battle. How is it done?”

The Grand Duke said: “In commanding an army there must be the signals of gong and drum, by which the men are kept in order. The general must tell the officers and men plainly and publish the orders three times, teaching them the handling of weapons, the movements of rising and halting, and the changes signalled by banner and hand. So in teaching the officers and men: let one man learn the drill, and when he has learnt it join him with ten. Let ten learn it, and when they have learnt it join them with a hundred. Let a hundred learn it, and join them with a thousand. Let a thousand learn it, and join them with ten thousand. Let ten thousand learn it, and join them with the whole army. For the method of a great battle, when it has been learnt, join them with a host of a million. So a great army may be made and authority established over the realm.”

King Wu said: “Well said!”

55. Equalising Forces均兵第五十五

The exchange rate between chariot, horse and foot — the only such table in pre-Han literature. First their uses: the chariot is the army’s wings, for breaking a firm line, cutting off a strong enemy and stopping runaways; the horse is the army’s scout, for pursuing a beaten army, cutting supply and striking stragglers. Then the numbers: on open ground one chariot is worth eighty foot, one horseman eight foot, one chariot ten horse; in broken country each figure is halved. Then the establishment and the intervals in paces. The numbers in this chapter differ more between the three editions than anywhere else in the book, and the variants are given in the notes.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “In fighting chariots against infantry, how many foot is one chariot worth, and how many foot are worth one chariot? In fighting horse against infantry, how many foot is one horseman worth, and how many foot are worth one horseman? In fighting chariots against horse, how many horse is one chariot worth, and how many horse are worth one chariot?”

The Grand Duke said: “The chariot is the army’s wings: it breaks a firm array, cuts off a strong enemy and stops runaways. The horse is the army’s scout: it follows up a beaten army, cuts the supply route and strikes at stragglers. So if chariots and horse are not used in proper formation, one horseman is not worth a single foot-soldier. But when the whole army is drawn up in array on even terms, then by the rule for fighting on open ground one chariot is worth eighty foot and eighty foot are worth one chariot; one horseman is worth eight foot and eight foot are worth one horseman; one chariot is worth ten horse and ten horse one chariot. By the rule for fighting in broken country, one chariot is worth forty foot and forty foot one chariot; one horseman four foot and four foot one horseman; one chariot six horse and six horse one chariot. Chariots and horse are the army’s fighting arm: ten chariots will beat a thousand men and a hundred chariots ten thousand; ten horse will drive off a hundred men and a hundred horse a thousand. Such are the rough figures.” (The only table of equivalences between arms in pre-Han literature.)

King Wu said: “What is the establishment of officers for chariots and horse, and what their order of battle?”

The Grand Duke said: “The establishment for chariots: a chief to five chariots, an officer to fifteen, a commander to fifty, a general to a hundred. By the rule for open ground, five chariots to a rank, forty paces apart, ten paces between the flanks and sixty paces between the divisions. By the rule for broken country the chariots must keep to the road: fifteen chariots to a group and thirty to a company, twenty paces between front and rear, six paces between the flanks and thirty-six between the divisions; a mile apart in either direction, each returning to its own road. The establishment for horse: a chief to five horsemen, an officer to ten, a commander to a hundred, a general to two hundred. By the rule for open ground, five horsemen to a rank, twenty paces between front and rear, four paces between the flanks, fifty paces between the divisions. By the rule for broken country, ten paces between front and rear, two between the flanks, twenty-five between the divisions. Thirty horse to a company and sixty to a squadron, a hundred paces apart in either direction, each wheeling back to its own place.” (The three editions differ more in this paragraph than anywhere else in the book: both old texts read “an officer to ten chariots,” “twenty chariots to a company,” “two miles apart,” and both repeat “a chief to five chariots” and “an officer to ten horse” at points where the base text does not. The repetitions look like copyists’ errors; the base text is followed and the variants recorded.)

King Wu said: “Well said!”

56. The Chariot Trooper武車士第五十六

One paragraph of selection standards: under forty years of age, over seven feet five inches tall, able to outrun a galloping horse and mount it at the gallop, to turn about before and behind and to left and right and up and down, to lash the standards fast, and strong enough to draw an eight-picul crossbow and shoot accurately in every direction. The earliest physical standard for an arm of service in Chinese.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “How are chariot troopers chosen?”

The Grand Duke said: “The rule for choosing chariot troopers: take men under forty years of age and over seven feet five inches tall, who can run down a galloping horse and mount it at the gallop, who can turn about before and behind, to left and right, up and down, and can lash the standards fast; whose strength can draw an eight-picul crossbow and who can shoot before and behind and to left and right, all with practised ease. Such men are called chariot troopers, and they cannot be too well paid.” (The earliest physical standard for an arm of service in Chinese.)

57. The Cavalry Trooper武騎士第五十七

The companion to the last chapter: under forty, over seven feet five inches, strong, quick and out of the common run; able to shoot from the saddle at the gallop and to wheel and advance and retire in every direction; able to cross ditches, climb hills, face broken ground and get over great marshes; ready to ride at a strong enemy and throw a multitude into confusion. The closing words are the same as before: they cannot be too well paid.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “How are cavalry troopers chosen?”

The Grand Duke said: “The rule for choosing cavalry troopers: take men under forty years of age and over seven feet five inches tall, strong, quick and out of the common run; who can shoot from the saddle at the gallop and wheel and advance and retire before and behind and to left and right; who can cross ditches, climb hills, face broken ground and get over great marshes; who will ride at a strong enemy and throw a multitude into confusion. Such men are called cavalry troopers, and they cannot be too well paid.”

58. Chariot Warfare戰車第五十八

Ten fatal grounds and eight favourable ones for chariots. The ten: ground you cannot come back from; ground beyond a defile in a long pursuit; easy in front and broken behind; a defile hard to get out of; low marsh and sticky black clay; broken on the left and open on the right with a slope to climb; thick grass across the furrows and deep water to ford; too few chariots on open ground against too many foot; a ditch behind, deep water on the left and a steep bank on the right; and roads washed out by ten days of rain. The eight favourable grounds are all openings in the enemy: his ranks not yet formed, his banners in confusion, his men shifting, his array loose, his van hesitant and his rear timid, his army suddenly alarmed, an action on open ground that he cannot break off at dusk, a bivouac after a long march.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “How is chariot warfare conducted?”

The Grand Duke said: “For foot, the great thing is to know how to change; for chariots, to know the ground; for horse, to know by-ways and unfrequented roads. The three go by the same name of army and are used differently. In chariot warfare there are ten grounds of death and eight of victory.”

King Wu said: “What are the ten grounds of death?”

The Grand Duke said: “Ground you can go into and not come back from — the chariot’s ground of death. Going beyond a defile to follow the enemy far — the chariot’s ground of exhaustion. Easy going in front and broken behind — the chariot’s ground of straitness. Trapped in a defile and hard to get out — the chariot’s ground of severance. Low and marshy, with sticky black clay — the chariot’s ground of toil. Broken on the left and easy on the right, with a slope to climb — the chariot’s ground of contrariety. Thick grass across the furrows and deep water to be forded — the chariot’s ground of hindrance. Too few chariots on open ground, unmatched against the foot — the chariot’s ground of defeat. A ditch behind, deep water on the left and a steep bank on the right — the chariot’s ground of ruin. Rain day and night for ten days without ceasing and the roads washed out, so that one can neither advance nor get clear — the chariot’s ground of entrapment. These ten are the chariot’s grounds of death; by them an inept general is taken, and by knowing them a clear-sighted one avoids them.”

King Wu said: “What are the eight grounds of victory?”

The Grand Duke said: “The enemy’s van and rear, their array not yet formed — drive in at once. Banners in confusion, men and horses shifting again and again — drive in at once. Men now in front and now behind, now to the left and now to the right — drive in at once. The array not firm and the men looking back and forth — drive in at once. Those in front pressing on and doubting, those behind pressing on and afraid — drive in at once. The army suddenly alarmed and all crowding up together — drive in at once. An action on open ground that cannot be broken off by dusk — drive in at once. A long march and an evening bivouac, with the army in fear — drive in at once. These eight are the chariot’s grounds of victory. A general clear about the ten harms and the eight victories may be ringed about by a thousand chariots and ten thousand horse, driving at his front and galloping on his flanks, and will win ten thousand battles.”

King Wu said: “Well said!”

59. Cavalry Warfare戰騎第五十九

Ten victories and nine defeats for cavalry, matching the previous chapter. Among the ten, the passage on hanging on the enemy’s flanks — “swift as the wind, sudden as thunder, till broad day is like dusk, changing the banners again and again and changing the uniforms” — is one of the most vivid things in the book. The nine defeats are nine kinds of ground cavalry must not enter, each defined: ground of defeat, of encirclement, of death, of extinction, of exhaustion, of hardship, of distress, of affliction, of entrapment. Two of the terms, “heaven’s well” and “earth’s pit,” passed into the standard vocabulary of the commentators on Sunzi.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “How is cavalry warfare conducted?”

The Grand Duke said: “Cavalry has ten victories and nine defeats.”

King Wu said: “What are the ten victories?”

The Grand Duke said: “When the enemy first comes up, his array not formed and van and rear not joined, break through his leading horse and strike his flanks, and he must be put to flight. When his array is orderly and firm and his men mean to fight, let my horse hang on his wings and not leave him, galloping now up and now back, swift as the wind and sudden as thunder, till broad day is like dusk, changing the banners again and again and changing the uniforms — his army can be overcome. When his array is not firm and his men will not fight, press his van and rear, sweep his flanks, take him on both wings, and he must be afraid. When at evening he would go back to camp and his army is alarmed, take him on both flanks, strike his rear at speed and press up to the gate of his camp so that he cannot get in, and he must be beaten. When he has no defile to make himself secure in and has driven deep and far, cut his supply route and he must go hungry. When the ground is flat and open and the enemy is visible on every side, drive in with chariots and horse and he must be thrown into confusion. When he runs and his men scatter, take him on both flanks or fall on his van and rear, and his general may be captured.

“When he comes back at evening with a great force, his array is sure to be in disorder. Let my horse be told off ten to a troop and a hundred to a company, the chariots five to a group and ten to a squadron, with many banners set up and strong crossbows among them; strike now his flanks and now cut off his van and rear, and the enemy’s general may be taken. These are the ten victories of cavalry.”

King Wu said: “What are the nine defeats?”

The Grand Duke said: “Whenever horse drive at the enemy and cannot break his array, and he feigns flight and turns his chariots and horse back on my rear — this is the cavalry’s ground of defeat. Pursuing a beaten enemy across a defile and driving far without stopping, with the enemy in ambush on both my flanks and my rear cut off — the cavalry’s ground of encirclement. Going in with no way back and entering with no way out — this is called falling into heaven’s well and being stuck in earth’s pit: the cavalry’s ground of death. The way in narrow and the way out far, so that his weak can beat my strong and his few my many — the cavalry’s ground of extinction. Great ravines and deep valleys thick with timber — the cavalry’s ground of exhaustion. Water on either side, a great mound in front and a high hill behind, the army fighting between two waters with the enemy holding both inside and outside — the cavalry’s ground of hardship. The enemy cutting my supply route so that I go in and cannot come back — the cavalry’s ground of distress. Low swampy ground where advance and retreat are alike through mire — the cavalry’s ground of affliction. A deep ditch on the left and pits and mounds on the right, high and low looking level, and advance and retreat alike drawing the enemy on — the cavalry’s ground of entrapment. These nine are the cavalry’s grounds of death: by them a clear-sighted general keeps far off, and by them a blind one is trapped and beaten.” (“Heaven’s well” and “earth’s pit” passed into the standard vocabulary of the commentators on Sunzi.)

60. Infantry Warfare戰步第六十

The last chapter. Infantry against chariots and horse is the worst match in ancient warfare. The first answer relies on ground: keep to hills and defiles, long weapons and strong crossbows in front, short weapons and light crossbows behind, shooting by turns. The second is for open ground: let the men themselves serve as chevaux-de-frise, lay wooden caltrops, put the draught animals into the ranks and form the four-sided assault array; when the enemy’s horse is seen coming, scatter caltrops evenly and dig a ditch round the rear five feet wide and deep called the “life cage”; the men push the chevaux-de-frise forward and the carts are ranged as a rampart, pushed backward and forward and halted to make a post. The book ends on the words: let the whole army fight at speed and never slacken.

King Wu asked the Grand Duke: “How do infantry fight chariots and horse?”

The Grand Duke said: “Infantry fighting chariots and horse must rely on hills and defiles; long weapons and strong crossbows in front, short weapons and light crossbows behind, shooting by turns and halting by turns. However many the enemy’s chariots and horse that come up, keep the array firm and fight at speed, with picked men and strong crossbows to guard my rear.”

King Wu said: “I have no hills and no defiles. The enemy comes up in numbers and in fury; his chariots and horse take me on both flanks and sweep my van and rear. My whole army is afraid and breaks in flight. What should I do?”

The Grand Duke said: “Let my men serve as chevaux-de-frise themselves, lay down wooden caltrops, put the oxen and horses into the ranks and form the four-sided assault array. When the enemy’s chariots and horse are seen coming, scatter the caltrops evenly; dig a ditch round the rear five feet wide and five deep, called the life cage. Let the men push the chevaux-de-frise forward as they advance and range the carts as a rampart, pushing it forward and back and halting to make a post; with picked men and strong crossbows guarding my flanks. Then let my whole army fight at speed and never slacken.” (The book ends on those words.)

King Wu said: “Well said!”